is the seat of the South-West Presbyterian University. | and a History of the Currency of the Isle of Man, and his Population (1880), 3880; (1890), 7924; (1900), 9431. collections included over a thousand editions of the Old Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emmanuel (1822-1888), German physicist, was born on 2nd January 1822 at Köslin, in Pomerania. After attending the Gymnasium at Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844. In 1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed professor of physics in the Royal Artillery and Engineering School at Berlin. Late in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture as privat docent in the University. In 1855 he became an ordinary professor at Zürich Polytechnic, accepting at the same time a professorship in the University of Zürich. In 1867 he moved to Würzburg as professor of physics, and two years later was appointed to the same chair at Bonn, where he died on 24th August 1888. During the FrancoGerman war he was at the head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville and Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical rather than an experimental physicist, was concerned with many of the most abstruse problems of molecular physics. By his restatement of Carnot's principle he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis, and he deserves the credit of having made thermo-dynamics a science; he enunciated the second law, in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the well-known form, "Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body." His results he applied to an exhaustive development of the theory of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the conception of entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to his labours, Clerk Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It was he who raised it, on the basis of the dynamical theory of heat, to the level of a theory, and he carried out many numerical determinations in connexion with it, e.g., of the mean free path of a molecule. To Clausius also was due an important advance in the theory of electrolysis, for he put forward the idea that molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms, the electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange. This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by Arrhenius, who adduced additional arguments in its support, and formed from it the hypothesis of electrolytic dissociation now widely accepted. Clay, Charles (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at Bredbury, near Stockport, on 27th December 1801. He began his medical education as a pupil of Mr Kinder Wood in Manchester (where he used to attend Dalton's lectures on chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to continue his studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general practice in Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to practise as an operative and consulting surgeon. It was there that, in It was there that, in 1842, he first performed the operation of ovariotomy with which his name is associated. On this occasion it was perfectly successful, and when fifteen years afterwards he published an analysis of his cases he was able to show a mortality only slightly above 25 per cent. Although his merits in this matter have sometimes been denied, his claim to the title "Father of Ovariotomy" is now generally conceded, and it is admitted that he deserves the credit not only of having shown how that operation could be made a success, but also of having played an important part in the advance of abdominal surgery for which last century was conspicuous. In spite of the claims of a heavy practice, Clay found time for the pursuit of geology and archæology. Among the books of which he was the author were a volume of Geological Sketches of Manchester and New Testaments, and a remarkably complete series of the silver and copper coins of the United States of America. He died at Poulton-le-Fylde, near Preston, on 19th September 1893. Clay Cross, a town in the Chesterfield division of Derbyshire, England, 5 miles south from Chesterfield, with a station on the Midland Railway. Since 1894 it has been The Clay Cross governed by an urban district council. Colliery and Ironworks Company employ a great number of hands. Population (1891), 7727; (1901), 8348. Clay, Frederic (1840-1889), English musical composer, was born in Paris in 1840. He studied music under Molique in Paris, and Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the exception of a few songs and two cantatas, The Knights of the Cross (1866) and Lalla Rookh (1877), his compositions were all written for the stage; but he will be best remembered as the composer of "I'll sing thee songs of Araby." Clay's first public appearance was made with an opera entitled Court and Cottage, the libretto of which was written by Tom Taylor. This was produced at Covent Garden in 1862, and was followed by Constance (1865), Ages Ago (1869), and Princess Toto (1875), to name only three of many works which have long since been forgotten. The last two, which were written to libretti by W. S. Gilbert, are among Clay's most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote part of the music for Babil and Bijou (1872), and The Black Crook (1873), both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He also furnished incidental music for a revival of Twelfth Night, and for the production of James Albery's Oriana. His last works, The Merry Duchess (1883), and The Golden Ring (1883), the latter written for the reopening of the Alhambra, which had been burned to the ground the year before, showed an advance upon his previous work, and rendered all the more regrettable the stroke of paralysis which crippled his physical and mental energies during the last few years of his life. He died at Great Marlow in 1889. (R. A. S.) Clays, Paul Jean (1819-1900), Belgian artist, was born at Bruges in 1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of the most esteemed marine painters of his time, and early in his career he substituted a sincere study of nature for the extravagant and artificial conventionality of most of his predecessors. When he began to paint, the sea was considered by Continental artists as worth representing only under its most tempestuous aspects. Artists cared only for the stirring drama of storm and wreck, and they clung still to the old-world tradition of the romantic school. Clays was the first to appreciate the beauty of calm waters reflecting the slow procession of clouds, the glories of sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred sides of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers, the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he also threw off the trammels imposed on him by his master, the marine painter Gudin. Endeavouring only to give truthful expression to the nature that delighted his eyes, he sought to render the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight of waters, the transparence of moist horizons, the gem-like sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his feeling for colour, he set his palette with clean strong hues, and their powerful harmonies were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones then in favour. If he was not a "luminist" in the modern use of the word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of the modern naturalistic school. This conscientious and healthy interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious career, | revolution of 1870 he had become sufficiently well known attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won over those which were moderate. Clays soon took his place among the most famous Belgian painters of his generation, and his pictures, sold at high prices, are to be seen in most public and private galleries. We may mention, among others, "The Beach at Ault," "Boats in a Dutch Port," and "Dutch Boats in the Flushing Roads," the last-named in the National Gallery of London. In the Brussels Gallery are "The Port of Antwerp," ""Coast near Ostend," and a Calm on the Scheldt"; in the Antwerp Museum, "The Meuse at Dordrecht"; in the Pinakothek at Munich, "The Open North Sea"; in the New York Gallery, "The Festival of the Freedom of the Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863"; in the palace of the king of the Belgians, "Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857"; in the Bruges Academy, "Port of Feirugudo, Portugal." P. J. Clays was a member of several Academies, Belgian and foreign, and of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour, &c. See CAMILLE LEMONNIER. Histoire des Beaux Arts. Brussels. 1887. (0. M*.) Clayton-le-Moors, a township and parish of Lancashire, England, 2 miles north-north-west of Accrington by rail, in the Accrington parliamentary division. In 1894 the parish was placed under an urban district council of twelve members. Besides the church of All Saints, restored in 1882, the parish has a Roman Catholic church (1819), a Primitive Methodist (1858), a Wesleyan (1862), and a Baptist (1882) chapel; there are also five schools, one of them Roman Catholic. Other buildings are the district council offices, a mechanics' institute, and a fire-station. The industries comprise cotton mills, calico printing, engineering, soap, brick, and tile works. Area of urban district, 1059 acres; population (1881), 6695; (1901), 8153. Clearfield, capital of Clearfield county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the western branch of the Susquehanna river, and on the Pennsylvania, the Beech Creek, and the Buffalo, Rochester, and Pittsburg Railways. Population (1890), 2248; (1900), 5081. Cleator Moor, a town in the Egremont parliamentary division of Cumberland, England, 23 miles north of Egremont by rail. There are public offices, a market hall, and a free library. The staple industry is the working of coal mines and of iron-ore mines, in connexion with which there are four blast furnaces. Area of urban district, 2947 acres; population (1881), 10,420; (1901), 8121. Cleburne, capital town of Johnson county, Texas, U.S.A., 25 miles south of Fort Worth, at the intersection of two branches of the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fé Railway. Population (1890), 3278; (1900), 7493. Cleckheaton, a township and parish in the Spen Valley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 12 miles by rail south-west of Leeds. There are a town hall, a hospital for infectious diseases, a mechanics' institute, and a technical school. A chamber of commerce has held meetings here since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens, blankets, flannel, wire-card, and machinery. Area of urban district, 1755 acres; population (1881), 10,653; (1901), 12,523. Clémenceau, Georges (1841-), French politician, was born at Mouilleron-en-Pareds, La Vendée, 28th September 1841. Having adopted medicine as his profession, for which he had been educated at Nantes and Paris, he settled in 1869 in Montmartre; and after the to be nominated mayor of the 18th arrondissement of Paris of his influence, and several factors now contributed | teacher before the first century has closed. The orderlito his decline. The split in the Radical party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its collapse made his help unnecessary to the moderate republicans. A further misfortune occurred in the Panama affair, Clémenceau's relations with Cornelius Herz leading to his being involved in the general suspicion; and, though he remained the leading spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for 1893 he was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it continuously since 1876. After his defeat for the Chamber, M. Clémenceau confined his political activities to journalism, his career being further overclouded so far as any possibility of regaining his old ascendancy was concerned by the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which he took an active and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an opponent of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. He was the founder of the newspaper L'Aurore, in which M. Zola published his famous open letter "J'accuse," and thus prepared the way for the revision of the first Dreyfus trial ness of Nature is appealed to as expressing the mind of its Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament worship bears a like witness; everything is duly fixed by God; high priests, priests and Levites, and the people in the people's place. Similarly in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. "The apostles preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the apostles from Christ. They appointed their first-fruits, having tested them by the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those who should believe. Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there would be strife about the name of the bishop's office. For this cause, therefore, having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and afterwards gave a further injunction (envouýv has now the further evidence of the Latin legem) that, if these should fall asleep, other approved men should succeed to their ministry. It will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop's office those who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily" (cc. xlii. xliv.). The epistle was published in 1633 by Patrick Young from Cod. Alexandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that the great prayer (cc. lv.-lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six years after Lightfoot's first edition) Bryennius published a complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from which in 1883 he gave us the Didaché. In 1876 Bensly found a complete Syriac text in a MS. recently obtained by the University Library at Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials in an Appendix (1877); his second edition, on which he had been at work at the time of his death, came out in 1890. This must remain the standard edition, notwithstanding Dom Morin's most interesting discovery of a Latin version (1894), which was probably made in the 3rd century, and is a valuable addition to the authorities for the text. Its evidence is used in a small edition of the epistle by R. Knopf, Leipzig, 1899 (J. A. R.) Clemens Romanus (see Ency. Brit., ninth ed., vol. ii. p. 195). Further knowledge requires a restatement of the facts concerning the Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians. This epistle was occasioned by a dispute in the Church of Corinth, which had led to the ejection of several presbyters from their office. It does not contain Clement's name, but is addressed by "the Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth." But there is no reason for doubting the universal tradition which ascribes it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. A.D. 96. No claim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground of superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in Clemens, Samuel Langhorne, better the earliest document outside the canon which we can known as MARK TWAIN (1835- ), the most widely securely date, the Church in the imperial city comes for- popular of American humorists, and a writer of striking ward as a peacemaker to compose the troubles of a Church vigour and directness, was born 30th November 1835, at in Greece. Nothing is known of the cause of the discon- Florida, Missouri. His father was a country merchant tent; no moral offence is charged against the presbyters, from Tennessee, who moved soon after his son's birth and their dismissal is regarded by Clement as high-handed to Hannibal, Missouri, a little town on the Mississippi. and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of the younger members When the boy was only twelve his father died, and thereof the community against the elder. After a laudatory after he had to get his education as best he could. Of account of the past conduct of the Corinthian Church, he actual schooling he had little. He learned how to set enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of virtues, type, and as a journeyman printer he wandered widely, and illustrates his various topics by copious citations from going even as far east as New York. At seventeen the Old Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way he went back to the Mississippi, determined to become for his tardy rebuke of present disorders, which he re- a pilot on a river steamboat. In his Life on the serves until two-thirds of his epistle is completed. Mississippi he has recorded graphically his experiences Clement is exceedingly discursive, and his letter reaches while "learning the river." But in 1861 the war broke twice the length of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Many out, and the pilot's occupation was gone. After a brief of his general exhortations are but very indirectly con- period of uncertainty the young man started west with his nected with the practical issue to which the epistle is brother, who had just been appointed lieutenant-governor directed. Indeed, his latest editor, Rudolf Knopf, is con- of Nevada. He went to the mines for a season, and there vinced that he was drawing largely upon the homiletical he began to write in the local newspapers, adopting the material with which he was accustomed to edify his Roman pen name of "Mark Twain." He drifted in time to San congregation. This view receives some support from the Francisco, and it was a newspaper of that city which in long liturgical prayer at the close, which almost certainly 1867 supplied the money for him to join a party going represents the intercession which he was wont to use in his on a chartered steamer to the Mediterranean ports. The Roman Eucharists. But we must not allow such a theory letters which he wrote during this voyage were gathered in to blind us to the true wisdom with which the writer 1869 into a volume, The Innocents Abroad, and the book defers his censure. He knows that the roots of the immediately won a wide and enduring popularity. This quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the Church's life. His popularity was of service to him when he appeared on the general exhortations, courteously expressed in the first platform with a lecture-or rather with an apparently inperson plural, are directed towards a wide reformation of formal talk, rich in admirably-delivered anecdote. He manners. If the wrong spirit can be exorcised, there is edited a daily newspaper in Buffalo for a few months, and hope that the quarrel will end in a general desire for re- in 1870 he married Miss Olivia L. Langdon, removing a conciliation. The most permanent interest of the epistle year later to Hartford, where he established his home. lies in the conception of the grounds on which the Chris-Roughing It was published in 1872, and in the year after he tian ministry rests according to the view of a prominent collaborated with Charles Dudley Warner in The Gilded Age |