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that Paul left, not Aquila, but Aquila's house; and in the restoration of a curious syntactical construction which is peculiar to Codex Beza. Other corrections may be made. But it is in the annotations that the student will, by the aid of the facsimile, add most to the Scrivener transcript, and where he will make many corrections both as to the matters deciphered and the dates to which the hands are assigned. Of publications which in recent times have dealt with the Codex Beza, and the peculiar Western text of which it is the chief representative, the following should be noted:-(1) J. Rendel Harris, Study of Codex Bezoe (1891), in which the problem of the Bezan text was reopened, and an attempt was made to explain the peculiarities by the hypothesis of Latin reactions upon a Greek text, accompanied in a lesser degree by some Syriac reactions, the additional matter being largely due to a glossator who was probably under the influence of the Montanist movement. (2) F. H. Chase, Old Syriac Element in the Codex Bezo (1893) and The Sylo-Latin Text of the Gospels (1895), in which substantially the whole of the Bezan peculiarities were referred to Syriac influence, and an attempt was made to find the original home of the text in Antioch. (3) The reply by Harris in Four Lectures on the Western Text (1894) should be studied, both for what it contradicts and what it concedes, and especially for the proof it contains of the early diffusion of the Bezan accretions to the Acts in Mesopotamia and other parts of the East. (4) But these and other attempts to explain the genesis of the Bezan text were cast into the shade by a brilliant hypothesis of Professor Blass of Halle, who maintained that the Lucan writings (St Luke and the Acts) in which the deviation of the Codex Beza from canonical form is most conspicuous, were in reality extant in two separate editions produced by St Luke himself, one of which he calls Antiochian, and the other Roman, a hypothesis which Blass defends with astonishing learning and skill, and in which he enlisted, almost at once, a body of sympathizers such as Nestle, Hilgenfeld, Belser, Salmon, and others, whose writings must be referred to. Blass himself not only published the Acts in what he supposed to be the original double edition, but defended himself against all attacks with amazing vigour, so that even Harnack has hardly succeeded in demolishing his theory. Whether, however, this theory can be finally sustained is still in lite. What is certain is that the Western text, as represented in the Codex Beza and cognate authorities, is older and more widely diffused than had been generally recognized; that it was extant in Greek, Latin, and Syriac in the earliest times; and that no single series of linguistic reactions can explain it away. And whatever be the exact value of the Blass demonstrations and reconstructions, it is evident that a great increase of critical weight has accrued to the Western readings generally in consequence of them; so that, even if it be conceded, as it must be, that the Codex Bezæ is subject to all kinds of corrupting influences, such as lectionary prefaces, harmonizations, and bad transcriptions, the nucleus of the text is as old as anything which we have in evidence for the text of the New Testament. A striking instance of this may be found in a far-reaching observation of a pupil of Professor Blass, named Lippelt, who found on examining the spelling of the name 'Iwávvns in the Codex Bezæ, that the name was almost uniformly spelt with one v in the two Lucan books, although in the rest of the Codex the conventional spelling has prevailed. striking testimony to the fact that the Bezan Luke and Acts once circulated together in a separate volume, though they are not now side by side, may be further extended by examining the Latin version, from which it appears that the spelling with one n prevails in Luke, but not in Acts, the inference being that the combined Lucan volume

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was not translated all at once, but at two different times and by two different hands. The Bezan text, therefore, retains traces of the history and collection of the books of the N.T. and of their translation which are not to be found in any other MS., and to be faithful thus in minimis renders it certain that it is also trustworthy in greater matters. The ultimate discrimination of the various elements in the Bezan (Western) text has yet to be made, and the suspicion is that the problem has not yet found its Newton. (J. R. HA.)

Cœlentera form a Group or Grade of the Animal Kingdom, the zoological importance of which has risen considerably since the time (1887) of the publication of the original article in the Ency. Brit., even though their numbers have been reduced by the elevation of the Sponges or Porifera to the rank of an independent Phylum under the title Parazoa (Sollas, 1884). For the Coelentera thus restricted, the term Enterocola, in contrast to Cœlomocœla (the old Coelomata), was suggested by Lankester (1900). From the more complex colonial Protozoa the Cœlentera are readily separated by their possession of two distinct sets of cells, with diverse functions, arranged in two definite layers,—a condition found in no Protozoan. The old criterion by which they and other Metazoa were once distinguished from Protozoa, namely, the differentiation of large and small sexual cells from each other and from the remaining cells of the body, has been broken down by the discovery of numerous cases of such differentiation among Protozoa. The Cœlentera, as contrasted with other Metazoa (but not Parazoa), consist of two layers of cells only, an outer layer or ectoderm, an inner layer or endoderm. They have hence been described as Diploblastica. In the remaining Metazoa certain cells are budded off at an early stage of development from one or both of the two original layers, to form later a third layer, the mesoderm, which lies between the ectoderm and endoderm ; such forms have therefore received the name Triploblastica. At the same time it is necessary to observe that it is by no means certain that the mesoderm found in various groups of Metazoa is a similar or homologous formation in all cases. A second essential difference between Colentera and other Metazoa (except Parazoa) is that in the former all spaces in the interior of the body are referable to a single cavity of endodermal origin, the "gastro-vascular cavity," often termed the cœlenteron: the spaces always originally continuous with one another, and are in almost every case permanently so. This single cavity and its lining serve apparently for all those functions (digestion, excretion, circulation, and often reproduction) which in more complex organisms are distributed among various cavities of independent and often very diverse origin.

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In the Colentera the ectoderm and endoderm are set apart from one another at a very early period in the lifehistory; generally either by delamination or invagination, processes described in the article EMBRYOLOGY. Between these two cell-layers a mesogloa (Bourne, 1887) is always intercalated as a secretion by one or both of them; this is a gelatinoid, primitively structureless lamella, which in the first instance serves merely as a basal support for the cells. In many cases, as, for example, in the Medusa or jelly-fish, the mesogloea may be so thick as to constitute the chief part of the body in bulk and weight. The ectoderm rarely consists of more than one layer of cells: these are divisible by structure and function into nervous, muscular, and secretory cells, supported by interstitial cells. The endoderm is generally also an epithelium one cell in thickness, the cells being digestive, secretory, and sometimes muscular. Reproductive sexual cells may be found in either of these two layers, according to the class and

sub-class in question. The mesogloea is in itself an inert non-cellular secretion, but the immigration of muscular and other cells into its substance, both from ectoderm and endoderm, gives it in many cases a strong resemblance to the mesoderm of Triploblastica,-a resemblance which, while probably superficial, may yet serve to indicate the path of evolution of the mesoderm.

The Colentera may thus be briefly defined as Metazoa which exhibit two embryonic cell-layers only, the ectoderm and endoderm, their body-cavities being referable to a single cavity or cœlenteron in the endoderm. Their position in the Animal Kingdom and their main subdivisions may be expressed in the following table :

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The ANTHOZOA differ from the Scyphomedusæ in having no medusoid form; they all more or less resemble a seaanemone, and may be termed actinioid. They are (with rare exceptions, probably secondarily acquired) hypogenetic, the offspring resembling the parent, and both being sexual. The sexual cells are borne on the mesenteries in positions irrespective of obvious developmental radii.

The CTENOPHORA are so aberrant in structure that it has been proposed to separate them from the Cœlentera altogether they are, however, theoretically deducible from an ancestor common to other Colentera, but their extreme specialization precludes the idea of any close relationship with the rest (see CTENOPHORA).

As regards the other three groups, however, it is easy to conceive of them as derived from an ancestor, represented to-day to some extent by the planula-larva (Ency. Brit., HYDROZOA, vol. xii. p. 548), which was Colenterate in so far as it was composed of an ectoderm and endoderm, and had an internal digestive cavity (I. of the table).

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On a comparison of these subdivisions with those adopted by Professor Lankester in the article Hydrozoa (Ency. Brit. vol. xii.), it will be noticed that the Scyphomedusæ then included with the Hydromedusæ as Hydrozoa are here placed nearer to the Anthozoa than to their old pendants. The reasons for this may be stated briefly.

The HYDROMEDUSA are distinguished from the Scyphozoa chiefly by negative characters; they have no stomodæum, that is, no ingrowth of ectoderm at the mouth to form an esophagus; they have no mesenteries (radiating partitions) which incompletely subdivide the cœlenteron; and they have no concentration of digestive cells into special organs. Their ectodermal muscles are mainly longitudinal, their endodermal muscles are circularly arranged on the body-wall. Their sexual cells are (probably in all cases) produced from the ectoderm, and lie in those radii which are first accentuated in development. They typically present two structural forms, the non-sexual hydroid, and the sexual medusoid; in such a case there is an alternation of generations (metagensis), the hydroid giving rise to the medusoid by a sexual gemmation, the medusoid bearing sexual cells which develop into a hydroid. In some other cases medusoid develops directly from medusoid (hypogenesis), whether by sexual cells or by gemmation. The medusoids have a muscular velum of ectoderm and mesogloea only.

The SCYPHOZOA have the following features in common:They typically exhibit an ectodermal stomodæum; partitions or mesenteries project into their colenteron from the body-wall, and on these are generally concentrated digestive cells (to form mesenterial filaments, phaceuæ, etc.); the external musculature of the body-wall is circular (except in Cerianthus); the internal, longitudinal; and the sexual cells probably always arise in the endoderm.

The SCYPHOMEDUSA, like the Hydromedusa, typically present a metagenesis, the non-sexual scyphistomoid (corresponding to the hydroid) alternating with the sexual medusoid. In other cases the medusoid is hypogenetic, medusoid producing medusoid. The sexual cells of the medusoid lie in the endoderm on interradii, that is, on the second set of radii accentuated in the course of develop

ment.

The medusoids have no true velum; in some cases a structure more or less resembling this organ, termed a velarium, is present, permeated by endodermal canals.

Ctenophora ?

II.

III.

At the point of divergence between Scyphozoa and Hydromedusa (II. of the table of hypothetical descent), we may conceive of its descendant as tentaculate, capable of either floating (swimming) or fixation at will like Lucernaria to-day; and exhibiting incipient differentiation of myoepithial cells (neuro-muscular cells of HYDROZOA, loc. cit. p. 549). At the parting of the ways which led, on the one hand, to modern Scyphomedusa, on the other to Anthozoa (III.), it is probable that the common ancestor was marked by incipient mesenteries and by the limitation of the sexual cells to endoderm. The lines of descentII. to Hydromedusa, and III. to Scyphomeduse-represent periods during which the hypothetical ancestors II. and III., capable of either locomotion or fixation at will, were either differentiated into alternating generations of fixed sterile nutritive hydroids (scyphistomoids) and locomotor sexual medusoids, or abandoned the power of fixation in hypogenetic cases. During the period represented by the line of descent-III. to Anthozoa-this group abandoned its power of adult locomotion by swimming. During these periods were also attained those less important structural characters which these three groups present to-day. (G. H. Fo.)

Cognac, chief town of arrondissement, department of Charente, France, 32 miles west by north of Angoulême, by rail. Large quantities of brandy and wine are exported to England, America, and Australia, and the total trade in alcoholic liquors of Cognac alone has a mean annual value of £1,200,000. Population (1881), 13,096; (1896), 18,932.

Cohn, Ferdinand (1828-1898), German botanist, was born on 24th January 1828 at Breslau. He was educated at Breslau and Berlin, subsequently being Professor of Botany at Breslau University. He had a remarkable career owing to his Jewish origin. He was contemporary with Pringsheim, and worked with Goeppert, Nees von Esenbeck, Ehrenberg, and Johannes Müller. At an early date he exhibited astonishing ability with the microscope, which he did much to improve, and his researches on cell-walls and the growth and contents of plant-cells soon attracted attention, especially as he made remarkable advances in the establishment of an improved cell-theory, discovered the cilia in, and analysed the movements of, zoospores, and pointed out that the protoplasm of the plant-cell and the sarcode of the zoologists were one and the same physical vehicle of life. Although these early researches were especially on the Algæ, in which group he instituted marked reforms of the rigid system due to Kützing, Cohn had already displayed that activity in various departments which made him so famous as an all-round naturalist, his attention at various times being turned to such varied subjects as Aldorovanda, torsion in trees, the nature of waterspouts, the effects of lightning, physiology of seeds, the proteid crystals in the potato, which he discovered, the formation of travertin, the rotatoria, luminous worms, &c. &c., the mere notice of which would carry us too far.

It is, however, in the introduction of the strict biological and philosophical analysis of the life-histories of the lower and most minute forms of life that Cohn's greatest achievements consist, for he applied to these organisms the principle that we can only know the phases of growth of microscopic plants by watching every stage of development under the microscope, just as we learn how different are the youthful and adult appearances of an oak or a fern by direct observation. The success with which he attempted and carried out the application of cultural and developmental methods on the Alge, Fungi, and Bacteria can only be fully appreciated by those familiar with the minute size and elusive evolutions of these organisms, and with the limited appliances at Cohn's command. Nevertheless his account of the life-histories of Protococcus (1850), Stephanosphæra (1852), Volvox (1856 and 1875), Hydrodictyon (1861), and Sphæroplea (185557) among the Algae have never been put aside. first is a model of what a study in development should be; the last shares with Thuret's studies on Fucus and Pringsheim's on Vaucheria the merit of establishing the existence of a sexual process in Algæ. Among the Fungi Cohn contributed important researches on Pilobolus (1851), Empusa (1855), Tarichium (1869), as well as valuable work on the nature of parasitism of Algae and Fungi.

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It is as the founder of bacteriology that Cohn's most striking claims to recognition will be established. He seems to have been always attracted particularly by curious problems of fermentation and coloration due to the most minute forms of life, as evinced by his papers on Monas prodigiosa (1850) and "Ueber blutähnliche Färbungen (1850), on infusoria (1851 and 1852), on organisms in drinking-water (1853), “Die Wunder des Blutes" (1854), and had already published several works on insect epidemics (1869-70) and on plant diseases, when his first specially bacteriological memoir (Crenothrix) appeared in the journal (Beiträge zur Biologie) which he then started (1870-71), and which has since become so renowned. Investigations on other branches of bacteriology soon followed, among which "Organismen der Pockenlymphe " (1872), "Untersuchungen über Bacterien," I. (1872), II. (1875), IV. (1876), are most important, and laid the foundations of the new department of science which has

now its own laboratories, literature, and votaries specially devoted to its extension in all directions. When it is remembered that Cohn brought out and helped Koch in publishing his celebrated paper on Anthrax (1876), the first clearly worked out case of a bacterial disease, the significance of his influence on bacteriology becomes apparent.

Among his most striking discoveries during his studies of the forms and movements of the Bacteria may be mentioned the nature of Zoogloa, the formation and germination of true spores,-which he observed for the first time, and which he himself discovered1 in Bacillus subtilis,—and their resistance to high temperatures, and the bearing of this on the fallacious experiments supposed to support abiogenesis; as well as works on the bacteria. of air and water, the significance of the bright sulphurgranules in sulphur bacteria, and of the iron-oxide deposited in the walls of Crenothrix. His discoveries in these and in other departments all stand forth as mementoes of his acute observation and reasoning powers, and the thoughtful (in every sense of the word) consideration of the work of others, and suggestive ideas attached to his principal papers, bear the same characteristics. If we overcome the always difficult task of bridging in imagination the interval between our present platform of knowledge and that on which bacteriologists stood in, say, 1870, we shall not undervalue the important contributions of Cohn to the overthrow of the then formidable bugbear known as the doctrine of "Spontaneous Generation," a dogma of despair calculated to impede progress as much in its day as that of "Vitalism" did in other periods. Cohn had also clear perceptions of the important bearings of Mycology and Bacteriology in infective diseases, as shown by his studies in insect-killing fungi, microscopic analysis of water, &c. He was a foreign member of the Royal Society and of the Linnean Society, and received the gold medal of the latter in 1895. He died in 1898. Lists of his papers will be found in the Catalogue of Scientific Papers of the Royal Society, and in Ber. d. d. bot. Gesellsch., 1899, vol. xvii. p. (196). The latter also contains (p. (172)) a full memoir by F. Rosen. (H. M. W.)

Cohoes, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A., situated in 42° 46' N. lat. and 73° 42′ W. long., in the eastern part of the state. Two railways enter the city— the Delaware and Hudson and the New York Central and Hudson River. It was built for manufacturing purposes at the Falls of the Mohawk, which furnish power. In 1890 there was an invested capital of $11,275,137, employing 8939 persons, with a product amounting to $10,836,260. Of this amount one-half was represented by hosiery and knit goods, for which the place is famous. Population (1880), 19,416; (1890), 22,509; (1900), 23,910.

Coimbatore, a town and district of British India, in the Madras Presidency. The town is situated on the left bank of the Noyil river, 304 miles by rail from Madras. In 1881 it had a population of 38,967, in 1891 of 46,383, and in 1901 of 52,931, showing an increase of 14 per cent. The municipal income in 1896-97 was Rs.55,730. The town stands 1437 feet above sea-level, and is well laid out and healthy. It has a station on the Nilgiri branch of the Madras Railway. It has two aided colleges, three high schools with 1185 pupils, several

1 In August 1872 Cohn wrote: "So hat sich bei den Bakterien überhaupt keine eigentliche Fortpflanzung (Ei- oder Sporen- bildung) bis jetzt nachweisen lassen" (Beitr. B. i. H. 2, p. 179). In 1876 (Beitr. B. ii. H. 2, p. 263) he described the spores and their formation in B. subtilis.

missionary bodies and literary institutions, and four printing-presses. There is one cotton mill, with 20,384 spindles, employing 1000 hands.

The DISTRICT OF COIMBATORE has an area of 7860 square miles. The population in 1891 was 2,004,839, being 255 persons per square mile. In 1901 the population was 2,202,312, showing an increase of 10 per cent.

The land revenue and rates were Rs.33,82,127, the incident of assessment being R. 1-2-5 per acre; the number of police was 906. In 1897-98, out of a total cultivated area of 2,266,851 acres, 390,262 were irrigated, including 74,973 from Government canals. The principal crops are millet, rice, other food grain, pulse, oilseeds, cotton, and tobacco, with a little coffee. Forests cover nearly 1 million acres, yielding valuable timber (teak, sandal-wood, &c.), and affording grazing ground for cattle. There are eight factories for pressing cotton, and two for cleaning coffee, two oilcake presses, three tanneries with an outturn valued at Rs.50,00,000, a sugar refinery, and 822 saltpetre refineries. The south-west line of the Madras Railway runs through the district. In 1896-97 the number of schools was 1242, attended by 35,477 pupils, being one pupil to every 57 of the total population. The registered death-rate in 1897 was 20.1 per thousand.

Coimbra, a city and episcopal see of Portugal, capital of district Coimbra, on the right bank of the Mondego, about 24 miles above its mouth. It has a scientific and literary institute. The average attendance at the university is 1350 students annually. There are manufactures of earthenware, hats, and leather; and lamprey fishing is important. Population (1900), 18,424. The district of Coimbra has an area of 1499 square miles, and a population of 333,505, giving a density of 211 inhabitants to the square mile. It has a fertile soil, and produces millet and wine, and possesses large herds of cattle. At Cape Mondego coal is mined.

Coinage. See NUMISMATICS.

Coire, or CHUR (often now spelt "Cur"), the capital of the Swiss canton of the Grisons or Graubünden. It is 1952 feet above the level of the sea. The new Raetian Museum has many antiquities, books, &c., relating to ancient Raetia, and includes also the geological collection of the monk Placidus à Spescha, who about 100 years ago thoroughly explored his native country. Father Theodosius, the founder of the hospital, died in 1865, and has a monument in front of the cathedral. Population, 9259 in 1888, and 11,513 in 1900. In 1888 Coire contained 6518 Romanists and 2729 Protestants, while 7799 spoke German and 1158 Romonsch. The see of Coire dates probably from the second half of the 4th century, and the first known bishop, Asimo, is mentioned in 455. In the troubled times of the 8th century the bishops were also great temporal lords, while in 831 Louis the Pious granted the bishop "immunity" for his territories, so that henceforth he was dependent simply on the empire. In 1170 he became a prince of the holy Roman Empire, and later extended his power over many of the neighbouring regions. In 1392 he became the chief of the " League of the House of God," originally formed in 1367 against him by his chapter, the city of Coire, &c. In 1526, by the articles of Ilanz," the bishop lost all his temporal possessions and rights, having, so to speak, fulfilled his historical rôle of bringing together the elements of one of the three Raetian leagues that in 1803 formed the canton of the Grisons. The guild constitution of the city of Coire lasted from 1465 to 1839.

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AUTHORITIES.-A. EICHHORN. Episcopatus Curiensis. Blasien, 1797.-W. V. JUVALT. Forschungen über die Feudalzeit im Curischen Raetien. Zürich, 2 parts, 1871.-C. KIND. Reformation in den Bisthümern Chur und Como. Coire, 1858.— CONRADIN VON MOOR. Geschichte von Curraetien, 2 vols. Coire, 1870-74.-P. C. VON PLANTA. Das alte Raetien. Berlin, 1872. -Ibid. Die Curraetischen Herrschaften in der Feudalzeit. Bern, 1881.-Ibid. Verfassungsgeschichte der Stadt Cur im Mittelalter. Coire, 1879.-Ibid. Geschichte von Graubünden. Bern, 1892.

Colchester, a municipal and parliamentary borough (coextensive; since 1885 returning only one member) and seaport of Essex, England, on the Colne and the Great Eastern Railway. The ancient church of the Holy Trinity has been restored, and St Runwald's removed. Recent erections are a new bridge over the Colne, assembly rooms, a corn exchange, a town-hall, a technical and university extension college, a drill-hall, a reading-room, a library, a dozen almshouses, and a new cattle market. The Essex and Colchester general hospital has been enlarged. Castle Park, of 9 acres, containing Colchester Castle, was opened in 1892. The harbour was taken over by the corporation in 1898. The oyster fisheries belonging to the corporation are held on a ninety-nine years' lease by the Colne Fishery Company, incorporated under an Act of 1870. The registered shipping at the end of 1900 consisted of 157 vessels of 4717 tons. 1900, 537 vessels of 38,731 tons entered, and 505 of 34,338 tons cleared. These entrances and clearances do not include those of vessels trading between Colchester and London or other ports on the estuary of the Thames. Area, 11,331 acres. Population (1881), 28,374; (1891), 34,559; (1901), 38,351.

In

Colchester, a town of Chittenden county, Vermont, U.S.A., on the Lake Champlain. The principal village of the town is Winooski, on Onion river, a few miles above its mouth, and on the Central Vermont Railway, at an altitude of 326 feet. Population (1880), 4421; (1890), 5143; (1900), 5352.

Cold Harbor, a village of Hanover county, Virginia, U.S.A., 10 miles north-east of Richmond. It was the scene of a succession of battles, June 1, 2, and 3, 1864, between the Union army under Grant and the Confederate forces under Lee. The Union troops, who took the offensive in most of the fighting, lost heavily, the total number being reported at 12,738.

Cold Storage. See REFRIGERATING MACHINERY. Coldwater, capital of Branch county, Michigan, U.S.A., situated in the south of the lower peninsula, on the east branch of Coldwater river, and on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad, at an altitude of 982 feet. Population (1880), 4681; (1900), 6216.

Cole, Sir Henry (1808-1882), the English public servant whose name will always be associated with the early organization of "South Kensington," was born at Bath on 15th July 1808, and was the son of an officer in the army. At the age of fifteen he became clerk to Sir Francis Palgrave, then a subordinate officer in the Record Office, and, helped by Charles Buller, to whom he had been introduced by Thomas Love Peacock, and who became chairman of a Royal Commission for inquiry into the condition of the public records, worked his way up until he became an assistant keeper. He largely assisted in influencing public opinion in support of Sir Rowland Hill's reforms at the Post Office. A connexion with the Society of Arts caused him to drift gradually out of the Record Office: he was a leading member of the Commission that organized the great Exhibition of 1851, and upon the conclusion of its labours was made secretary to

the School of Design, which by a series of transformations became in 1853 the Department of Science and Art. Under its auspices the South Kensington Museum was founded in 1855 upon land purchased out of the surplus of the Exhibition, and Cole practically became its director, retiring in 1873. His proceedings were frequently criticized, but the Museum owes everything to his energy. Indefatigable, genial, and masterful, he drove everything before him, and by all sorts of schemes and devices built up a great institution, whose variety and inequality of composition seemed imaged in the anomalous structure in which it was temporarily housed. He also, though to the financial disappointment of many, conferred a great benefit upon the metropolis by originating the scheme for the erection of the Royal Albert Hall. He was active in founding the national training schools for cookery and music, the latter the germ of the Royal College of Music. He edited the works of his benefactor Peacock; and was in his younger days largely connected with the press, and the author of many useful topographical handbooks published under the pseudonym of "Felix Summerly." He died on 18th April 1882. (R. G.)

Cole, Vicat (1833-1893), English painter, born at Portsmouth on 17th April 1833, was the son of the landscape painter, George Cole, and in his practice followed his father's lead with marked success. He exhibited at the British Institution at the age of nineteen, and was first represented at the Royal Academy in 1853. His election as an Associate of this institution took place in 1870, and he became an Academician ten years later. He died in London on 6th April 1893. The wide popularity of his work was due partly to the simple directness of his technical method, and partly to his habitual choice of attractive material. Most of his subjects were found in the counties of Surrey and Sussex, and along the banks of the Thames. One of his largest pictures, "The Pool of London," was bought by the Chantrey Fund Trustees in 1888, and is now in the National Gallery of British Art.

See ROBERT CHIGNELL. The Life and Paintings of Vicat Cole, R.A. London, 1899.

Colenso, John William (1814-1883), Bishop of Natal, was born at St Austell, Cornwall, on 24th January 1814. His family were in embarrassed circumstances, and he was indebted to relatives for the means of university education. Second Wrangler at Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College, his mathematical distinction led him to be invited to Harrow in 1837, but the step proved an unfortunate one. The school was just then at the lowest ebb under an unpopular headmaster, and Colenso not only got few pupils, but lost most of his property by a fire which destroyed his house. He went back to Cambridge, and in a short time paid off heavy debts by diligent tutoring, and the proceeds of his marvellously successful series of manuals of algebra and arithmetic, which were adopted all over England. In 1846 he became rector of Forncett St Mary, Norfolk, and in 1853 was appointed Bishop of Natal. Full of zeal, he devoted himself on his arrival to acquiring the native language, of which he compiled a grammar and dictionary, and into which he translated the New Testament and other portions of Scripture. His ardour, however, was soon diverted into another channel by the puzzling objections of natives, who convinced him that the verbal inspiration and Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch could not be maintained. Colenso brought his arithmetical attainments to bear upon the question, and published his conclusions, positive and negative, in a series of treatises on

the Pentateuch, extending from 1862 to 1879. His conclusions were naturally disputed with a fervour of conviction equal to his own. While controversy raged in England, the South African bishops, whose suspicions Colenso had already incurred by the liberality of his views respecting polygamy among native converts and a commentary upon Romans alleged to savour of heresy, met in conclave to condemn him, and pronounced his deposition (December 1863). Colenso, who had refused to appear before their tribunal otherwise than as sending a protest by proxy, appealed to the Privy Council, which pronounced that the Cape Town Metropolitan had no coercive jurisdiction and no authority to interfere with the Bishop of Natal. No decision, therefore, was given upon the merits of the case; but it is significant that although many eminent clergymen have since expressed views agreeing in essentials with Bishop Colenso's, no prosecution has been instituted against any of them. His adversaries, though unable to obtain his condemnation, succeeded in causing him to be generally inhibited from preaching in England, and set up a rival bishop in Natal, who, however, assumed a different title. The contributions of the missionary societies were withdrawn, but an attempt to deprive him of his episcopal income was frustrated by a decision of the Courts. Colenso, encouraged by a handsome testimonial raised in England, to which many clergymen subscribed, returned to his diocese, and devoted the latter years of his life to further labours as Biblical commentator and translator, and especially to the defence of the natives against what he considered oppression and wrong. By this course he made more enemies among the colonists than he had ever made among the clergy. He died at Durban on 20th June 1883. The character of the man and of his works are summed up in ten words of Jowett : "He has made an epoch in criticism by his straightforwardness." (R. G.)

Coleraine, a maritime town and urban sanitary district, in the county of Londonderry, Ireland, on the river Bann and the Belfast and Northern Counties Railway, 145 miles north of Dublin. It ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 1885. The harbour has been much improved from grants by the Irish Society of London and from a loan under the River Bann Navigation Act, 1879. In all 420 vessels of 46,526 tons entered in 1899, and 256 of 32,631 tons cleared. The number of persons employed in the salmon fishery district in 1899 was 731. Population (1881), 6694; (1891), 6845; (1901), 6929.

Coleridge, John Duke Coleridge, 1st BARON (1820-1894), Lord Chief Justice of England, was the eldest son of Sir John Taylor Coleridge (see Ency. Brit., 9th edition, vol. vi. p. 135). He was born at Heath's Court, Ottery St Mary, on the 3rd of December 1820. He was educated at Eton, an institution which, as managed in the 'thirties, sent most of its pupils into the world slenderly enough equipped for the battle of life. It was otherwise in the case of Coleridge, the system then prevailing, with its worship of Latin verses and the elegancies of classic scholarship in general, being just suited to bring out the rhetorical talents which did so much to make his fame; but he owed even more to his innate love of letters than he did to any formal teaching. He gained a scholarship at Balliol, and entered that college at a very auspicious moment, for the scholars' table there has never been occupied by a more brilliant company. The late Principal Shairp of St Andrews published in the year 1873 a poem called "The Balliol Scholars from 1840-43," which well described it.

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