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ous change in the popular, and even the professional, way of regarding sea-power and its conditions. He did not invent the term " sea-power,"-it is, as is shown elsewhere (SEA-POWER), of very ancient origin,—nor did he employ it until Captain Mahan had made it a household word with all. But he thoroughly grasped its conditions, and in his great work on Naval Warfare (first published in 1891) he enunciated its principles with great cogency and with keen historic insight. The central idea of his teaching was that naval supremacy is the condition precedent of all vigorous military offensive across the seas, and, conversely, that no vigorous military offensive can be undertaken across the seas until the naval force of the enemy has been accounted for either destroyed or defeated and compelled to withdraw to the shelter of its own ports, or at least driven from the seas by the menace of a force it dare not encounter in the open. This broad and indefeasible principle he enunciated and defended in essay after essay, in lecture after lecture, until what at first was rejected as a paradox came in the end to be accepted as a commonplace. He worked quite independently of Captain Mahan, and his chief conclusions were published before Captain Mahan's works appeared. In the last edition of Naval Warfare he showed how, in the Cuban War, Captain Mahan had been driven by force of circumstances to adopt in practice the sound doctrine of the Command of the Sea, which in some of his works he had seemed in some measure to impugn. There was no jealousy and no rivalry between these two great writers on the philosophy of naval warfare. They worked on independent lines-Colomb perhaps with deeper and more consistent thought, but Mahan assuredly with a broader historical outlook, and with finer powers of lucid and orderly exposition.

Colomb died quite suddenly and in the full swing of his literary activity on October 13, 1899, at Steeple Court, Botley, Hants. His latest published work was a biography of his friend Sir Aştley Cooper Key, and his last article was a critical examination of the tactics adopted at Trafalgar, which showed his acumen and insight at their best. He left much valuable literary material in an unfinished state at his death. He was often thought too speculative, and even too visionary, by his contemporaries of a profession which is eminently practical, and little given to speculation even on the theory of its own occupation. He was indeed essentially a pioneer, and his larger range of thought often supplied the Navy with well-considered methods, of which practical men discerned neither the rationale nor the origin. But no naval officer of his time left a deeper or more lasting impression on the thought and action of the great service he adorned.

(J. R. T.)

Colombes, a town in the arrondissement of St. Denis, department of Seine, France, 7 miles north-northwest of Paris, near the left bank of the Seine, and on the railway from Paris to Havre. It has a 16th-century church with 12th-century tower, numerous villa residences and boarding schools, and manufactures of gelatine and starch. A castle formerly stood here, in which died Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. of England and daughter of Henry IV. of France. Port traffic (1899), 55,350 tons. Population (1901), 23,061. The adjacent town of Bois COLOMBES had a population (1896) of 10,404.

Colombia, a country of South America extending from 12° 20' N. lat. to the still undefined boundaries of Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil. The boundary towards Venezuela, according to the arbitration of the Spanish Government in 1891, runs from the Bay of Calaboso westwards to the mountains of Oca, then southwards along the watershed between the Magdalena river and Lake Mara

caibo as far as the Rio de Oro, whence it crosses the cordillera and follows successively the rivers Oira, Arauca, Meta, Orinoco, and Atabapo. Then it passes to the Piedra del Cocuy and follows the course of the Guainia to the frontier of Brazil. The boundary dispute with Peru and Ecuador was, by treaty of 1894, submitted to the arbitration of Spain. The question of the frontier towards Costa Rica was in 1899 submitted to the president of the French Republic, who gave his award on 15th September 1900. The boundary between the two republics is formed by the spur of the cordilleras starting from Cape Mona on the Atlantic and enclosing on the north the valley of the Rio Tarire, and by the watershed between the Atlantic and Pacific up to the parallel of 9° N. lat. It then follows the watershed between the Chiriqui Viejo and the affluents of the Dolce Gulf, ending at Burica Point on the Pacific. The islands east and south of Cape Mona are Colombian, to the west and north-west Costa Rican; but seven islands at a greater distance, lying between the Mosquito coast and the isthmus of Panama, are Colombian. On the Pacific coast Colombia possesses Burica and the islands to the east; Costa Rica, those to the west.

Area and Population.-According to a census taken in 1871 the total population was 2,951,323, consisting of 1,434,129 males and 1,517,194 females. An official estimate published in 1881, and considered to be approximately correct for the present date, gave the following details as regards area and population :—

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This estimate includes some 220,000 uncivilized Indians, and the population of the different territories attached to departments. A later statement, published in 1893, estimates the total population at 4,060,000, but without precise data showing where the increase occurred. The principal towns are Bogota (the capital), with 110,000 inhabitants; Medellin, with 50,000; Panama, 30,000; Cartagena, 20,000; Bucaramanga, 20,000.

No statistics of the movement of population are compiled. An official calculation in 1893 estimated the death-rate at 21 per 1000, 20 per cent. of the deaths being those of children under one year, and 30 per cent. of the total deaths those of children under five years of age. Of the total population 68.8 per cent. are engaged in agriculture; 10'6 per cent. are labourers; 8'6, mechanics; 8'4, commercial; 2.0, miners.

Spanish is spoken throughout Colombia, except among some of the tribes of Indians in the districts adjoining the Meta, Orinoco, and the affluents of these two rivers. The highlands are generally healthy, the lowlands and plains infected to some extent with malarial fever. The annual mean temperature at Bogota, 8300 feet above sea-level, is said to be 63° Fahr.

Constitution and Government.-The constitution of 1863 was superseded in 1886 by that now in force, which adopted a centralized organization and named the state the Republic of Colombia. The legislative power is entrusted to the Senate and the House of Representatives, together constituting the Congress, which meets at the capital every two years, on the 20th of July. The Senate consists of twenty-seven members, three from each department, who are elected for six years by the departmental assemblies (legislatures). The House of Representatives consists of sixty-eight members-one member for every 50,000 inhabitants; they are elected for four years directly by citizens able to read and write, or who have an income of $500 a year, or real estate worth $1500. The executive authority is vested in the President of the Republic, who is assisted by ministers chosen by him, and a Council of State consisting of seven members. He is elected by electoral colleges for six years, and when for any reason he ceases to act, the vicepresident takes his place.

Local Government.-Each of the nine departments is divided into provinces, and these into municipal districts, of which there are 991. The departments are under governors appointed by the President, and each has an elective assembly, meeting every two years. The municipal districts are under alcaldes, and each has an elective municipal council. The governors and alcaldes are agents both of the central and local authorities.

Justice.-Justice is administered by a supreme court composed of seven members, the president of the court being elected by the members for a term of four years. In each of the judicial districts there are superior tribunals, lower courts, and magistrates. The law, both civil and criminal, is written and codified. The foundation of the Colombian legal system is Spanish law, modified in certain directions to suit local conditions. Many complaints are made of the administration of justice throughout the republic, and there can be no question that legal procedure is extremely dilatory.

Religion. The religion is the Roman Catholic. The ecclesiastical establishment consists of an archbishop, ten bishops, eight vicars-general, and 2170 priests of all classes, besides monks, who do not belong to the regular priesthood. The number of monks in 1894 in thirteen monasteries was 469, and the number of nuns in ten communities was 731. In 1894 the number of churches was 714, and chapels 312, in the whole republic.

Education.-Education, especially in the primary branches, has been much neglected, although attention has from time to time been directed to the subject. Primary education is under the control of the municipal authorities, grants in aid of the schools being given by the central Government. It is free, but not compulsory. The number of primary schools in 1898 was stated to be 2036, and the number of pupils on the rolls about 110,320. For secondary education there are thirty-four public colleges; fifteen normal schools, with 600 pupils; four technical colleges, with 800 students; two academies of music, with 300 pupils; one school of fine arts, with 160 pupils; a Salesian institute, with 200 pupils; and a national night institute for artizans, with 150 pupils. There is a national university, and four departmental universities. national Government devotes a sum of nearly 800,000 pesos annually to educational purposes. There is a national library containing 40,000 volumes, and a museum of antiquities and natural curiosities, both situated in the capital of the republic. Seminaries for priests are maintained by their own revenues and are free from civil control.

The

Defence. The peace footing of the army was fixed at 2158 men in the budget for the biennial period 1899-1900. The military strength, however, consists principally of a national militia comprising about 130,000 men, with 3203 officers, who can be called to serve if required. The small arm in use is the Männlicher rifle. The police force consists of 1000 men.

Finance. The actual revenue recorded in 1895 was 16,273,259 pesos; in 1896, 20,444,489 pesos; in 1897, 19,519,431 pesos; in 1898, 17,941,569 pesos. For the biennium 1897-98 the revenue was 57,461,000, and the expenditure 41,429,180 pesos, leaving a deficit of 3,968,180 pesos. The principal sources of revenue are the duties on imports and exports, these yielding 10,750,889 pesos in 1895, 13,697,823 pesos in 1896, and 13,256,353 pesos in 1897. The failing off in 1897 was stated to be in consequence of the reduction of the duties on salt, and the suppression of the export duty on coffee. Other sources of income in 1897 were the saladero tax, 1,767,607 pesos; the sale of stamped paper, 733,762 pesos; and the post office and telegraphs. The war department absorbs more than one-half of the annual expenditure; but details of actual expenditure are not accessible. The budgets of revenue and expenditure are voted for periods of two years. For 1899-1900 the revenue was estimated at 34,305,000 pesos, and the expenditure at 34,000,000 pesos.

The service of the foreign debt was suspended in 1880. The amount of this obligation was then £1,913,500, bearing interest at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum. In 1896, when the debt and arrears amounted to £3,514,442, an agreement was made to issue bonds for £2,700,000 in exchange for old bonds, arrangements being made for a reduction in the rates of interest and amortization. Of the authorized issue the sum of £2,500,000 had been emitted in 1899, but the payment of interest by Colombia ceased in 1899. The internal indebtedness consists of a consolidated debt of 6,000,000 pesos; a floating debt of 5,000,000 pesos; and the paper money in circulation, increased by recent issues to 40,000,000 pesos. The total internal obligations are, therefore, 51,000,000 pesos in round numbers.

Production.-Economic development has been retarded by the difficulties of transport, and by the frequent recurrence of revolutionary disturbances. The production of wheat and other bread stuffs is insufficient for local demand. The principal industry is coffee planting. The export of coffee in 1895 amounted to 21,504 tons; 1896, 28,521 tons; in 1897, 17,564 tons; in 1898, 38,480 tons. Colombian coffee shipped at the Venezuelan port of Maracaibo does not figure in the return of Colombian exports. Tobacco is exported in large quantities, amounting for 1898 to 6120 tons;

cocoa and sugar are also grown-the former in sufficient quantities for export. Ivory nuts and dye-woods are collected for shipment abroad, and various medicinal products. Of india-rubber, 404 tons were exported in 1898. The rubber trees are principally found in the low-lying forest regions bordering the Orinoco river, and southwards towards the affluents of the river Amazon.

Pastoral industry extends over the whole country, but is practised on a large scale only on the great plains of the interior adjoining the rivers flowing into the Orinoco, where the number of cattle is estimated to be not far short of 3,500,000. Dried beef, tasajo, is prepared, and animals are driven to populous centres for sale; but the outlet is much restricted. In 1899 the scarcity of cattle in Cuba caused a demand, and a large number of live animals were exported from the port of Cartagena. Sheep, goats, and swine are raised for the home market.

The mining industry has hitherto been chiefly directed towards the search for gold and emeralds, and, to a lesser extent, silver. The production of gold and silver in three years is given as follows, in troy ounces :—

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In July 1899 a sudden fever for speculation in emeralds set in and lasted for some weeks. During this period stones to the value of 4,000,000 pesos were stated to have changed hands, often at prices above the values in Europe. Iron ore of good quality is abundant. The salt mines are worked as a Government monopoly, and the supply is large.

Manufacturing industry is only in its infancy. The Pradera ironworks to the north-east of Bogota have a capacity for a daily output of 30 tons of pig-iron, and this establishment also produces wrought iron, rails, sugar-mills, and castings. Manganese is found in the vicinity of these works. Breweries and distilleries have been established in the principal cities. Soap and candle factories, boot- and shoe-making, tanneries, and other small local industries are found scattered over the republic to supply the local needs of the population.

Commerce.-The imports consist mainly of tissues, groceries, wines and spirits, hardware, and other articles of common use or consumption, while the principal exports are coffee, gold and silver, tobacco, live-stock, hides and skins, bananas, and some medicinal products. The values of the imports and exports, expressed in sterling (gold peso 4 sh.), for six years were as follow:

Years. Imports. Exports. Years. Imports. Exports. £

£

£

£

1893 2,680,660 2,926,060 1896 3,389,420 3,719,470 1894 2,142,240 3,192,400 1897 3,627,400 3,364,080 1895 2,305,670 3,017,680 1898 2,216,610 3,831,540

In 1898 the imports at Panama and Colon amounted to the value of £722,468; and the exports to £212,220. The exports in 1898 from the ports of Panama, Colon, Barranquilla, Cartagena, and Santa Marta comprised coffee to the value of £1,384,184; gold dust, £595,343; silver and silver ore, £182,018; tobacco, £309,609; hides and skins, £175,684; live-stock, £192,507; bananas, £116,720; rubber, £84,822. Of the exports in 1898, the value of £1,061,175 went to the United States, £963,270 to Great Britain, £674,350 to France, £613,980 to Germany, and £200,130 to Venezuela. According to British statistics, the imports into the United Kingdom from Colombia in 1899 amounted to £574,021; and the exports of home produce from the United Kingdom to Colombia, to £668,986 of which £356, 693 was for cottons. According to American statistics, the imports into the United States from Colombia in 1899 amounted to £1,067,900, of which £506,320 was for coffee; and the exports of home produce from the United States to Colombia, to £622,830.

The principal commercial centre for the direct trade of Colombia is Barranquilla, slightly more than one-half of the total passing by way of that place through the port of Sabanilla; about one-quarter of the balance goes to Cartagena, and the remainder is chiefly divided between Buenaventura, Riohacha, and Santa Marta. The transit trade by way of Panama to and from Europe and the east and west coasts of North America averages annually about 130,000 tons for the outward freights, and about 120,000 tons for those to Europe and the Atlantic ports. The import and export trade is largely in the hands of British, German, Spanish, Italian, and French merchants.

Shipping and Communications.-Thirty-three regular steamers visit Colombian ports monthly; of these, 15 are British, 9 American, 4 German, 3 French, 1 Spanish, and 1 Italian. The number of ships entering Colombian ports in 1897 was 1897, with a total

tonnage of 858,457 tons; the number cleared in the same year was 1850, with a tonnage of 800,710 tons. In 1898, 266 vessels of, altogether, 441,673 tons entered, and 263 of 442,777 tons cleared at Barranquilla and Sabanilla-more than half the tonnage being British. The shipping belonging to Colombian ports had, in 1898, a total tonnage of 2227 tons.

Means of transport for both passengers and freight are confined to a large extent to conveyance by mule or donkey. The so-called roads are little more than bridle tracks. The total length of the railways open to public service in 1899 was only 419 miles; but about 80 additional miles are in course of construction. These railways are in isolated sections, running as a rule from the seaboard to inland towns at different points of the coast. The Panama-Colon line has a length of 48 miles; the CartagenaCalamar line, 65 miles. The Magdalena river forms an important artery of trade. It is navigable for 780 miles; steamers ascend to La Dorada, 590 miles from Barranquilla; tributaries supply 215 miles more of navigable river, and on these waters 42 steamers, with a total tonnage of 7330 tons, ply regularly. At present the journey from the coast to Bogota requires at least twelve days of continuous travel by rail, steamer, and mule. There are some 8600 miles of telegraph lines, with 448 stations open to the public; and a telephone system has been established in the principal towns. The republic is connected with the outside world by the cable of the Central and South American Cable Company.

The postal service is well organized; in the two years 1896-97 the letters and post-cards conveyed numbered 2,794,069; printed papers, 1,233,313; other packets, 161,217,-total pieces, 4,188,599. Panama Canal. The construction of a ship canal, 46 miles in length, across the Isthmus of Panama was in 1881 undertaken by a company which went into liquidation in 1889. A new company, formed in 1894, carried on the work, and their concession was extended to the year 1910, by which time it was estimated the canal and locks might be completed, at a cost of £20,480,000. The total sum raised for the purpose of constructing the canal was 772,545,412 francs by the old company, and 65,000,000 francs by the new company. But when the American Government took up the question of constructing an Isthmian Canal, the position of the Panama Company was necessarily involved. See the articles CANALS and LESSEPS.

Credit and Currency. The law, passed in 1894, for the redemption of the inconvertible paper currency has not been carried into effect. The amount in circulation is stated to be 51,000,000 pesos, the value constantly fluctuating, to the injury of trade. In Panama the silver dollar of 25 grammes, 835 fine, is the coinage in common use, but Peruvian silver is also current. The principal banking institutions are the Banco Nacional, the Banco de Colombia, and the Banco de Bogota, besides a number of private banks. The Banco Nacional is exclusively a State bank, and through it the paper money is put in circulation. The metric system of weights and measures is the legal system, but is not customarily in use, except at the Custom House and other Government offices. For ordinary purposes the Spanish pound, of 1.102 lb avoirdupois; the arroba, of 25 b; and the carga, of 250 lb, are invariably employed. Corn is measured by the fanega. In lineal measurement the vara (80 centimetres) is used. The litre is the standard for liquid measure.

Recent History.-The term of office for which President Aquiles Parra had been elected in 1876 came to a conclusion in 1878, and in April of that year General Trujillo was inaugurated as President of the republic for the two succeeding years. His administration was marked by a strong effort to place the financial position of the Government on a more satisfactory footing, and the internal indebtedness was substantially reduced during his rule. In April 1880 Señor Rafael Nuñez acceded to the Presidency. During his term of office revolutionary disturbances occurred in the provinces of Cauca and Antioquia, but were suppressed with no great difficulty. Provision was made in 1880 for a settlement of the boundary dispute with Costa Rica, and in July of that year the federal Congress authorized the formation of a naval squadron. A movement was now set afoot in favour of a confederation of the three republics of Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela on the basis of the original conditions existing after the expulsion of Spanish authority, and a resolution was passed by the Chamber of Deputies to that effect. The opposition shown by Venezuela and Ecuador to this project prevented any definite result from being achieved. In April 1882 Señor Laldua became President, but, his death occurring a year later, General Otalora was

nominated to exercise the executive power for the unexpired portion of the term. In 1883 the dispute in connexion with the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela was submitted by the two Governments to the arbitration of Alphonso XII., king of Spain, and a commission of five members was appointed to investigate the merits of the respective claims. The decision in this dispute was 'finally given by the Queen Regent of Spain on 16th March 1891. In April 1884 Señor Rafael Nuñez was again proclaimed President of the republic in his absence abroad. Pending his return the administration was left in the hands of General Campo Serrano and General Eliseo Payan. The Liberal party had been instrumental in the re-election of Nuñez, and looked for a policy in conformity with their views and political convictions. President Nuñez had no sooner returned to Colombia than the Liberals discovered that his political opinions had changed and had become strongly Conservative. Discontent at this condition of affairs soon spread. Nuñez from motives of ill-health did not openly assume the Presidential office, but from his house near Cartagena he practically directed the government of the republic. The Liberals now began to foment a series of revolutionary movements, and these led in 1885 to a civil war extending over the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, and Panama. General Reyes and General Velez were the two principal leaders of the revolt. In order to protect the passage of the traffic across the Isthmus of Panama during these disturbed times detachments of United States marines were landed at Panama and Colon, in accordance with the terms of the concession under which the railway had been constructed. After a number of defeats the leaders of the revolt surrendered in August 1885, and on 5th September following peace was officially proclaimed. Nuñez, who had meanwhile assumed the Presidential duties, now brought about a movement in favour of a fresh Act of Constitution for Colombia, and a new law to that effect was finally approved and promulgated on 4th August 1886. Under the terms of this act the federal system of government for Colombia was abolished, the states becoming departments, the governors of these political divisions being appointed by the President of the republic. Each department has a local legislative assembly elected by the people. The National Congress is constituted of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of twenty-seven members elected for six years, one-third retiring every two years, three of whom are nominated by each of the nine departments. departments. The House of Representatives comprises members elected for four years by universal suffrage, each department forming a constituency and returning one member for every 50,000 inhabitants. The Congress convenes every two years. The Presidential term of office under the new Act was fixed at six years in place of the two years formerly prevailing. The judiciary was irremovable, and trial by jury was allowed for criminal offences. Capital punishment was re-established, and the press was made responsible for matter published. The unlicensed trade in arms and ammunition thitherto existing was prohibited. Previous to 1886 the crime of murder was only punishable by 10 years' imprisonment, a sentence which in practice was reduced to two-thirds of that term; slander and libel were formerly offences which the law had no power to restrain, and no responsibility attached to seditious publications.

After the promulgation of this new Act of Constitution President Nuñez was proclaimed as President of the republic for the term ending in 1892. He was unable, however, in consequence of ill-health, to reside at Bogota and discharge the presidential duties, and, consequently, in August 1888 Señor Cárlos Holguin was designated to act for him.

tion treaty with Peru, signed 6th August 1898; (16) a treaty of peace, friendship, and defensive alliance with Venezuela, signed 21st November 1896, and on the same date a treaty regulating the frontier commerce.

AUTHORITIES.-BORDA, J. J. Compendio de Historia de Colombia. Bogota, 1890.-CAMACHO ROLDAN, SALVADOR. Escritos Varios. Bogota, 1892. Notas de Viaje. Bogota, 1890.-ETIENNE, C. P. Nouvelle-Grenade: aperçu général sur la Colombie. Genève, 1887.-LEMOS, ANGEL. Compendio de geografia de la Republica de Colombia. Medellin, 1894.-NUÑEZ, RICARDO, and JALHAY, HENRY. La République de Colombie. Bruxelles, 1898.-PAZ, M., and PEREZ, F. Atlas geografico é historico de la Republica de Colombia. Paris, 1889.-PALAU, LISIMACO. La Republica de Colombia. 1893.-PERIERA, R. S. Les Etats Unis de Colombie. Paris, 1883. PEREZ, FELIPE. Geografia general fisica y politica de los Estados Unidos de Colombia. Bogota, 1883.-RECLUS, ARMAND. Panama et Darien. Paris, 1881.-RECLUS, ELISEO. Geografia de Colombia. Bogota, 1893. RESTREPO, ERNESTO. Ensayo etnografico y arqueologico de la Provincia de los Quimbayas. Bogota, 1892.-RESTREPO, ERNESTO. Estudios sobre los Aborigenes de Colombia. Bogota, 1892.-RESTEPO, VICENTE. Estudio-sobre las Minas de Oro y Plata de Colombia. Bogota, 1888.-SCRUGGS, W. L. The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics. London, 1899. VERGARA VELASCO, F. J. Nueva Geografia de Colombia. Bogota, 1892.-Handbook of Colombia; Bureau of the American Republics. Washington, 1892. - British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports. London.-United States Consular Reports. Washington.-Constitution of the Republic of Colombia. Translated by Bernard Moses. Philadelphia, 1893.- Report of Council of Corporation of Foreign Bondholders for 1898-99. London, 1899. (W. W. R.; C. E. A.)

In 1892 President Nuñez was again elected to the Presidency for a term of six years, his continued ill-health, however, forcing him to place the active performance of his duties in the hands of the Vice-President, Señor Miguel Caro. In 1895 the Liberals made another attempt to seize the Government of the country, but the movement was suppressed without any very great difficulty. In this same year Nuñez died, and Vice-President Caro became the actual President, an office he had practically filled during the three previous years. In 1898 Señor M. A. Sanclemente, a strong Conservative, and supported by the Church party, was elected to the Presidency for the period ending in 1904. In October 1899 the Liberals organized another revolutionary outbreak for the purpose of trying to wrest the power from Conservatives, but this attempt had no better success than the movements of 1885 and 1895. In January 1900, however, Vice-President Marroquin seized upon the Government, imprisoned President Sanclemente (who died in prison in March 1902), and another period of disturbance began. The rebels were defeated in May in a desperate battle at Cartagena; and continuous fighting went on about Panama, where British marines had to be landed to protect foreign interests. As the year 1900 advanced, the conflict went on with varying success, but the Government troops were generally victorious, and in August Vice-President Marroquin was Colombo, the capital and principal seaport of Ceylon, recognized as the acting head of the executive, with a in the west coast. It has greatly changed since 1875. Cabinet under General Calderon. In 1901 the rebellion The formation of a commodious harbour (though the continued, and severe fighting took place about Colon. works are still in progress), and of 300 miles of railway, Further complications arose in August, when trouble has made the port a very important one, mail steamers occurred between Colombia and Venezuela. On the one calling regularly, as well as men-of-war and mercantile hand, there were grounds for believing that the Clericals marine of all nations, while the island's export traffic is and Conservatives in both countries were acting together; concentrated in it. The demolition of the landward side and, on the other, it was expected that President Castro of the old Dutch fort enabled new roads and buildings of Venezuela would not be sorry to unite his own countryto be constructed; much land was reclaimed; and the men, and to divert their attention from internal affairs, banks, many commercial and steamer offices now occupy by a war against Colombia. The Colombian revolutionary fine buildings. A new suburb has been built over with leaders had made use of the Venezuelan frontier as a base handsome bungalows beyond the Public Museum (a very of operations, and the result was an invasion of Venezuelan fine structure) and Victoria Park. The water supply is territory by Colombian Government troops, an incident drawn from a hill region 30 miles off. A scientific scheme which at once caused a diplomatic quarrel. The United of drainage is contemplated. Most of the town is lighted States Government in September offered its good offices, but by gas, and certain quarters with electric light, and electric President Castro refused them, and the state of affairs betramways have been laid over 7 miles of city roads. came gradually more menacing. Meanwhile both Panama packing, blending, and shipping of tea (rather than of and Colon were seriously threatened by the rebel forces, who in November succeeded in capturing Colon by surprise. coffee) is now the great industry, along with the preparaThe situation was complicated by the fact that the railwaytion and packing of cocoanut oil, cocoa (chocolate) plumbago,

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traffic on the Isthmus was in danger of interruption, and on the capture of Colon it became necessary for the American,

British, and French naval authorities to land men for the protection of the railway and of foreign interests..

The chief foreign treaties entered into by Colombia in the last quarter of the 19th century were:-(1) A treaty with Great Britain, signed on 27th October 1888, for the extradition of criminals; (2) a treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation with Italy, signed 27th October 1892; (3) two protocols with Italy, signed respectively 24th May and 25th August 1886, in connexion with the affair of the Italian subject Cerruti; (4) a consular convention with Holland, signed 20th July 1881; (5) a treaty of peace and friendship with Spain, signed 30th January 1881; (6) a convention with Spain for the reciprocal protection of intellectual property; (7) a concordat with the Vatican, signed 31st December 1887; (8) an agreement with the Vatican, signed 20th August 1892, in connexion with ecclesiastical jurisdiction; (9) an agreement with the republic of San Salvador, signed 24th December 1880, in regard to the despatch of a delegate to an international congress; (10) a treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce with Germany, signed 23rd July 1892; (11) a treaty with the republic of Costa Rica, signed in 1880, for the delimitation of the boundary; (12) the postal convention, signed at Washington, 4th July 1891; (13) a convention with Great Britain, signed 31st July 1896, in connexion with the claim of Messrs Punchard, M'Taggart, Lowther, & Co.; (14) a treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation with Peru, signed 6th August 1898; (15) an extradi

The

spices, &c. 607 steamers called to coal in 1900. Population (1891), 128,870; (1901), 154,279. There is a floating population in the harbour of from 5000 to 15,000.

Colon, formerly known as Aspinwall, a city and port on the northern coast of Panama, in the republic of Colombia, South America, on the north-east side of the Bay of Limon, 41 miles north-west of Panama by rail. Having been burned down during the revolution of 1885, it was rebuilt on improved plans, but owing mainly to carelessness in the administration and the untidy habits of the inhabitants, chiefly West Indians from Jamaica, it is still rather unhealthy. The streets, though wide and originally well paved, are badly kept, but are lighted by electricity. The harbour is only an open bay, and therefore dangerous at certain seasons. There are four piers, affording accommodation for eight ocean steamers at one time, in addition to a number of sailing craft. The northern portion of the city, owned by the Panama Railway Company, is supplied with water from the Chagres river, but the remainder depends mainly on rain water. There are a number of important commercial houses, an aërated water factory, and a distillery. The average tonnage of vessels entering is over 500,000 annually. Colon possesses a bronze statue

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of Columbus, presented by the Empress Eugénie in 1870. The population is about 10,000.

Colon, an important railway town of Matanzas province, Cuba, and the centre of a rich sugar-planting country. Population (1899), 7175.

Colonne, Édouard (properly JUDAS) (1838–

-), French conductor, was born at Bordeaux on 23rd July 1838. He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1856, and obtained there the first prizes in harmony and violinplaying in 1858 and 1863. He became a member of the orchestra at the Grand Opera in 1858, and at the foundation of Pasdeloup's Concerts Populaires was one of the first violins. The success of these concerts induced Colonne to start some on his own account. With the aid of Messrs Duquesnel and Hartmann, he founded Le Concert National. The first concert took place at the Odéon Theatre on 2nd March 1873. The following year the Concert National changed its title to that of Association Artistique, and migrated to the Théâtre du Châtelet. M. Colonne has done a great deal to popularize the works of Hector Berlioz, besides bringing forward compositions of the younger French school of music. He was "chef d'orchestre at the Paris Grand Opera from 1891 to 1893, and conducted the first performance there of Wagner's Die Walküre. M. Colonne has travelled with his orchestra, and he visited London in the autumn of 1896, when he gave four concerts at the Queen's Hall.

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Colorado, a western State of the American Union, situated between 41° and 37° N. lat. and 102° and 109° W. long., bounded on the N. by Wyoming and Nebraska, on the E. by Nebraska and Kansas, on the S. by Oklahoma and New Mexico, and on the W. by Utah. Its largest and most important development has occurred since 1875. During this period the growth of its mining, railway, manufacturing, and agricultural interests has been much greater than during all its previous history, while its educational institutions have nearly all of them been established since it was admitted to the Union, and its population has increased several-fold. Many of its towns have sprung into existence during this time, and its larger towns have changed from straggling and poorly constructed villages into important residential and manufacturing cities. Its area is 103,925 square miles, or over 66,000,000 acres. The western half of the State was part of the Mexican Cession of 1848. The south-east corner was part of the Texas Cession of 1850, and the north-western part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. It was organized as a Territory in 1861, and admitted as a State on 1st August 1876. At the first State election 30,000 votes were polled, the entire Republican ticket being elected, with John L. Routt (Republican) as Governor. The second Governor was F. W. Pitkin, who held office for four years, and was elected on the Republican ticket. He was followed by James B. Grant, a Democrat, who was succeeded by B. H. Eaton, a Republican. Alva Adams, a Democrat, was elected in 1887, and J. R. Cooper, a Republican, in 1890, being followed by John L. Routt. David H. Waite, a Populist, was chosen in 1893, Albert W. M'Intire, a Republican, in 1895; Alva Adams was again chosen in 1897, on a fusion ticket of Democrats and Populists, and on the same ticket Chas. S. Thomas was elected in 1899, and James B. Orman in 1901. The question of the free coinage of silver played an important part in the last three elections. Woman's suffrage prevails, having been adopted in the election of 1893 by a majority of about 5000 votes.

Population. In 1876 the population was estimated at 135,000; the census of 1880 showed an increase to 194,327, that of 1890 to 412,198, and that of 1900 to 539,700. The average number of

persons to the square mile was 5.2 in 1900, as compared with 3.9 in 1890. The population in 1900 was made up as follows :-295,332 (54.7 per cent.) males and 244,368 (45.3 per cent.) females, 448,545 native-born and 91,155 foreign-born, 529,046 white and 10,654 coloured (including 8570 negroes, 599 Chinese, 48 Japanese, and 1437 Indians). Out of 185,708 males 21 years of age and over, 7689 were illiterate (unable to write), including 3804 foreign-born, 448 negroes, 138 Chinese, 10 Japanese, and 246 Indians. The death-rate of the entire state in 1900, on the basis of the deaths reported to the U.S. census enumerators, was about 13'7. In 1900 there were 165 incorporated cities, towns, and villages in Colorado, of which 27 had a population of more than 2000, and of these 7 had a population of over 5000, namely, Denver, with 133,859; Pueblo, with 28,157; Colorado Springs, with 21,085; Leadville, with 12,455; Cripple Creek, with 10,147; Boulder, with 6150; and Trinidad, with 5345 inhabitants. The growth of Denver has been as follows: (1870), 4759; (1880), 35,629; (1890), 106,713; (1900), 133,859.

Mineral Resources.-The pioneers in the settlement of the State were attracted by its mineral resources. Gold and silver are found in 57 counties; iron, copper, lead, and zinc in 37; and aluminium in 5. The first discovery of gold was made on January 7, 1859; since then the coin value of the gold and silver produced, including the output of 1899, has been $665,039,636. The coin value of the gold product for 1899 was $26,265,487, and that of silver $29,679,706, making a total of $55,945,193. The total product for 1898 was $53,484,649. The chief gold-producing counties are Gilpin, Boulder, San Miguel, El Paso, Teller, Clear Creek, and Lake. The Cripple Creek district produced in 1900 about $1,250,000 of gold per month, and since 1891 had yielded $43,450,000. The largest silver production was in 1892, when the coin value of the product was $31,478,972. Iron ores are found in great abundance, and all materials necessary for making steel of excellent quality. The total value of the steel and iron products for 1899 was $7,681,719, in which year 134,936,223 pounds of steel rails and 215,640,332 pounds of pig iron were manufactured. Colorado stood ninth in 1898 in the list of coal-producing States. The aggregate area of coal beds is estimated at 18,100 square miles, and the accessible coal at 33,897,800,000 tons. In 1899 the total tonnage mined was 4,806,879, and 455,783 tons of coke were produced, the number of men employed being 7321. There are 35 oil wells in Fremont county, which are sunk to a depth of about 1500 feet. The oil ordinarily rises to within 400 feet of the surface, although there have been a number of flowing wells. The product increased from 76,295 barrels in 1887 to 842,000 in 1892; in 1900 it was about 500,000. It is refined, for the most part, at Florence, where there are two modern refineries. The value of lead produced in 1898 was $4,394,917; of copper, $1,831,500. The number of men employed in mining of all kinds was 30,231. Building stone of many varieties and of excellent quality is, produced, valued at $2,000,000 annually. Mineral springs are found in all parts of the State. They vary in temperature from 40° to 150° F., and many possess medicinal value. The chief springs are at Manitou, Glenwood, Idaho Springs, Poncho Springs, Buena Vista, and Cañon City.

Agriculture and Stock-Raising.—Early experiments in farming indicated that regular crops could be secured only by means of irrigation, and in 1872 irrigation ditches were exempted from taxation. Extensive systems of canals were developed. In 1877. English capitalists constructed a canal over 150 miles in length. This was followed by a canal that cost $2,500,000. Since then extensive canals have been built in the Arkansas and Grand In Valleys, the San Luis Park, and other parts of the State. 1889 there were over 6000 miles of main irrigating ditches. In 1900 the mileage had increased to more than 15,000, and the valuation of all irrigation enterprises was $6,000,000. The amount of land under irrigation in 1883 was 416,594 acres, and in 1899, 1,975,400 acres. The average annual cost of water per acre is 79 cents. The soil is fertile in the north central section and in the river bottoms and large valleys, producing cereals, fruits, and vegetables of a superior quality. As early as 1866 the SurveyorGeneral estimated that of the population of 35,000 one-half were engaged in agriculture. In 1870 the agricultural production was estimated at $3,500,000, or within half a million of the bullion product. The total value of all farm, range, ranch, and orchard products in 1882 was $8,947,500, and in 1899, $45,774,251. The assessed valuation of all agricultural lands in 1900 was $19,566,124, and of grazing lands $9,901,701. The natural fruits are rare and almost worthless. In 1873 fruit trees began to be planted in various parts, and in 1882 the amount of land in orchards was 2500 acres, and the estimated value of the fruit crop $250,000; in 1898 the number of acres of fruit land was 118,752, and the value of the fruit crop $5,225,000; and there was still much open for settlement and improvement. Apples, peaches, plums, apricots, pears, cherries, and melons of exceptionally fine flavour are raised in increasingly large quantities. The most productive sections are along the Arkansas Valley, and in the western and south-western portions of

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