conclusively proved at Grimsby that cholera can be spread by sewage-fed shell-fish. Several of the local outbreaks in England were traced to the ingestion of oysters obtained from the Grimsby beds. In short, it may be said that all insanitary conditions favour the prevalence of cholera in some degree. Preventive inoculation with an attenuated virus was introduced by M. Haffkine, and has been extensively used in India, with considerable appearance of success so far as the statistical evidence goes.

As already remarked, the latest manifestations of cholera show that it has lost none of its former virulence and fatality. The symptoms, about which Treatment. nothing need be said, are now regarded as the effects of the toxic action of the poison formed by the micro-organisms upon the tissues and especially upon the nervous system. But this theory has not led to any effective treatment. Drugs in great variety were tried in the Continental hospitals in 1892, but without any distinct success. The old controversy between the aperient and the astringent treatment reappeared. In Russia the former, which aims at evacuating the poison, was more generally adopted; in Germany the latter, which tries to conserve strength by stopping the flux, found more favour. Two methods of treatment were invariably found to give great relief, if not to prolong life and promote recovery the hot bath and the injection of salted water into the veins or the subcutaneous tissue. These two should always be tried in the cold and collapsed stages of cholera. Cholera Nostras.-The word nostras, which is good Latin, and used by Cicero, means "belonging to our country." It is applied to the original form of cholera, known from time immemorial, in order to distinguish it from the Asiatic variety, which was unknown until the 19th century. The relations between the two are very obscure. Clinically they may exactly resemble each other, and bacteriology has not been able to draw an absolute line between them. The real difference is epidemiological. Cholera-that is, cholera nostras- was described by Sydenham two centuries ago as sometimes epidemic, but only the Asiatic variety has been known to behave as a destructive pestilence; by cholera nostras is generally meant a disease which may be violent in individual cases, but possesses no epidemic significance.

See Local Government Board Reports, 1892-93-94-95.-CLEMOW. The Cholera Epidemic of 1892 in the Russian Empire.-WALL. "Asiatic Cholera."-NOTTER. Epidemiological Society's Transactions, vol. xvii. (A. SL.)

Chorley, municipal borough, parish, and market town, England, in the Chorley division of Lancashire, 22 miles N.W. from Manchester by rail. Recent public buildings include St George's church institute and a cottage hospital and public dispensary. There is a public free library. Cotton-spinning and the manufacture of cotton and muslin are extensively carried on, and there are also iron and brass foundries and boiler factories. Area of municipal borough, 3614 acres. Population (1881), 19,478; (1891), 23,087; (1901), 26,850.

Chórum, ancient Euchaita, altitude 2300 feet, a town of Asia Minor, in the Yuzgat sanjak of the Angora vilayet, situated at the edge of a wide plain. Euchaita was attacked by the Huns A.D. 508, and became a centre of religious enthusiasm. Population, 12,500, including a

few Christians.

Chota (or CHUTIA) Nagpur, a division of British India in Bengal, consisting of five British districts and nine tributary states. It is a hilly, forest-clad plateau, inhabited mostly by aboriginal races, between the basins of the Sone, the Ganges, and the Mahanadi. The five British districts are Hazaribagh, Lohardaga, Palamau, Manbhum,

and Singhbhum. The total area is 26,966 square miles, and in 1891 the population was 4,628,792, giving an average density of 172 persons per square mile, compared with 471 for Bengal generally. Christian missions have been specially active in this tract. In 1891 the number of native converts was 88,897, mostly in Lohardaga, being more than half the total for all Bengal. In 1896-97 five missions maintained 203 schools, attended by 5063 boys and 1208 girls. The nine tributary states of Chota Nagpur are Sirguja, Gangpur, Udaipur, Jashpur, Bonai, Korea, Changbhakar, Kharsawan, and Seraikella. The two last are tiny areas within the British district of Singhbhum, on the line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway. The others stretch over a large tract of hills separating Bengal from the Central Provinces. The total area comprises 16,054 square miles. The population in 1891 was 883,359, giving an average density of 55 persons per square mile, ranging from 238 in Kharsawan to 20 in Changbhakar. In 1901 the total population was 982,439, showing an increase of 11 per cent. The total gross revenue of the chiefs is estimated at Rs.2,40,000; the number of schools is 79, with 1626 pupils. The Bengal-Nagpur railway touches on Udaipur, and runs through a considerable part of Gangpur. In this last state there were serious disturbances in 1896, but the administration is improving under closer British supervision.

Christadelphians (Xploτoû ädeλpoi), a community founded by John Thomas (1848), who studied medicine in London and then migrated to America. There he at first joined the "Campbellites," but afterwards struck out independently, preaching largely upon the application of Hebrew prophecy and of the language of the Apocalypse to current and future In America and in Great Britain he political events. gathered a number of adherents, and formed a community which is said to have extended to most Englishspeaking countries. It consists of exclusive "Ecclesias," The members with neither ministry nor organization. meet on Sundays to "break bread" and discuss the Bible. Their theology is strongly millenarian, centring in the hope of a world-wide theocracy, with its seat at Jerusalem. They believe that they alone have the true exegesis of Scripture, and that the "faith of Christendom" is " compounded of the fables predicted by Paul." No statistics are published.

See ROBERTS. Dr Thomas: His Life and Work, and A Declara

tion of the Truth, &c. Birmingham.

Christchurch, town in Selwyn county, New Zealand, next to Dunedin the most populous town in South Island. Its manufactures are of importance, though its position is still due mainly to the large agricultural district round it. Its cathedral church, museum, public library, public gardens, agricultural show-ground, and chief cricket-grounds are the best of their kind in the colony. Three hundred students attend lectures at Canterbury College. Steam tramways connect the town with the sea-side, and though flat, it is well drained and healthy. Its fine public park has been well planted and improved. Its suburbs are noted for the number and taste of their private gardens. Mean temperature for the year, 52°; average yearly rainfall, 26 inches. Population (1901), 17,537; including suburbs, 57,041.

Christian IX., KING OF DENMARK (1818-), fourth son of Duke Wilhelm of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg Glücksburg, was born 8th April 1818, and succeeded to the throne on the death of King Frederick VII., 15th November 1863, in accordance with the provisions of the

It will be seen that the increase of the Teutonic races is far in excess of that of the Latin races; and when we keep in mind the greater birth-rate in the Teutonic races,1 we can realize that, unless some great and unexpected change takes place, the future influence of the Christian nations will be increasingly in the hand of the Teutonic or Protestant division of Christendom.

(e) The importance and significance of the ascendancy of Christian nations will be best realized by placing side by side the population and area of a selected number of the Christian nations and the native or colonial populations and areas now under their rule. We draw our

statistics from an interesting monograph carefully brought

up to date by Lieut.-Colonel V. Murari Brá, instructor in geography in the Scuola di Guerra in Italy.

Teutonic European only

Latin Slav

927,438 104,595,000 32,706,380 393,356,000 1,320,300 88,900,000 9,999,460 51,280,000 22,430,000 135,000,000 310,000 8,000,000

Thus the governing power of the Teutonic, Latin, and Slav races in Europe may be represented by the following figures: For every square kilometre or square mile of mother country, the Teutonic races govern 35, the Latin races govern 7.5, and the Slav 00-13 square miles; and for every inhabitant in the mother country there are in the dependencies of the Teutonic nations 37 inhabitants, in the Latin 057, and in the Slav 002. It is no flight of rhetoric to say that almost two-thirds of the world's population and four-fifths of its area are now under the government of Christian nations, and by far the largest share of this has fallen into the guardianship of the Teutonic nations, who govern not far short of 600,000,000 of people, or more than two-thirds of the whole popula1 The birth-rate of all European countries declined between 1875 and 1900, but the statement in the text is still substantially true, inasmuch as the birth-rate in Germany is still greatly in excess of the birth-rate in the Latin kingdoms. The decline in the birth-rate

in Great Britain is serious, but it is nothing like the decline in France; though all English-speaking people should earnestly consider the population question as it affects their own race.

In this influence wealth counts as an important factor, and the accumulations of that class of power which belongs to what is called wealth are chiefly in the hands Economic of Christian lands. They make the markets of influence. the world; they direct by far the largest portion of its commerce. And when wealth is measured as so much per head of the population, the non-Christian peoples scarcely enter into the calculation of the political econocommercially organized there are no materials on which mists. It is no doubt true that in countries not yet to base a calculation, but it is also true that in a sense that wealth in any economic sense may be said to exist it is only when the means of production are organized ; and it is in the Christian countries that these means of power are practically concentrated. The wealth per head of the Christian nations varies from £60 in Russia to £302 in England; France stands here at the head of the Latin nations with £253 per head, as England does at the head of the Teutonic nations. Teutonic nations is £226 per head, that of the Latin The average wealth of the £140, and that of the Slav about £6.

(iii) As a statistical measure of Christian energy, it will be convenient to notice some phases of Christian activity which have marked recent years.

non

There has been a very marked development of missionary enterprise (see MISSIONS). It is difficult to present a statistical estimate of the force of this development. It will be best to point out a few salient facts. We shall first confine ourselves to that which is popularly called missionary work, viz., Christian labours carried on among heathen or Christian peoples. The number of separate societies for that purpose has largely increased during the last century. It has been estimated that in 1790 there were in Great Britain only two societies which contemplated missionary work as within the scope of their operations, viz., the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Neither of these societies, however, directed its work solely towards the heathen world: the former aimed at circulating Christian literature in all quarters; the latter paid, and rightly paid, special attention to the needs of Britons in the colonies and in foreign parts. A century has seen the establishment of numerous societies for direct and exclusive missionary work. It has been estimated that the number of missionary societies is little short of 300; some of these are small and comparatively poor, but others are large and important organizations, resembling great State departments, commanding and distributing large revenues, and entailing upon their committees of management wide and varied responsibility and an almost statesmanlike judgment in the handling of difficult and delicate problems.

(b) There are in Great Britain alone twenty-nine foreign missionary societies. Four or five of these administer each an income of over £100,000 a year. They occupy nearly 10,000 stations and sub-stations; they employ 2739 European missionaries, upwards of 1800 women workers, and more than 27,000 native helpers. In the article on MISSIONS a full survey of the condition and prospects of various missionary societies is given. Here it may be enough to notice that the United States missionary societies employ about half the number of male missionaries sent out by Great Britain, while their 1700; their native agents are about 13,000; and the women missionaries nearly equal the British, being over estimated missionary contributions (Protestant) of the

(c) In this connexion may be instanced the diffusion of the Bible in the world. The British and Foreign Bible Society was founded in 1804; the American Bible Society twelve years later; in 1891 these two societies were but two out of 80 Bible societies in the world. In 1800 the translations of the Bible were 47 in number; there are now 90 complete and 230 partial versions, making a total of 320 translations more or less complete.

(d) Evidence of the continuous growth of aggressive Christian energy may be found in the rapid increase of nissionary bishoprics which has taken place of recent years. In the first half of the 19th century 23 new bishoprics were founded; in the latter half there were 69; the rate of increase was trebled in the second period. The same feature is shown in the Protestant Episcopal Church of America. During the 19th century it has added 73 new bishoprics, and 52 of these belong to the latter half of it. The two churches added to their organization 165 new sees in the same century, and no fewer than 73 of these have come into existence since 1870.

(e) But apart from figures, the whole position of Christian business has undergone a change in public estimation. Missionary meetings used to be dull, and missionary literature flat and insipid. Now all this is changed. Meetings are large and enthusiastic, and missionary literature displays a culture and breadth of treatment unknown to our fathers. The journals or magazines issued by societies treat of every land from Greenland to Patagonia, from Japan to the Southern Islands, and they set forth with intelligence and learning questions of geography, philology, sociology, art and science, native manners and customs, in addition to, or in illustration of, direct missionary information. The popular sympathy which so often waits on popular knowledge has been further enlisted by what are known as missionary loan exhibitions. In these vivid illustrations of native life and missionary work are given by means of costumes, curiosities, and models. To such an exhibition in Birmingham there were as many as 100,000 visitors; and everywhere similar exhibitions have been crowded.

As a witness to the changed popular feeling towards missionary enterprise, perhaps nothing can be more striking than the fact that there are now in England and America public monuments commemorating the zeal and devotion of the missionary. In Washington Square in New York there is a church which is a memorial to Judson the missionary; in Westminster Abbey there is a monument to David Livingstone, who lies in the ancient national shrine where the greatest of Englishmen are buried.

II. THE MEASURE OF CHRISTIAN PROGRESS IN MATTERS NOT REDUCIBLE TO STATISTICS.

(i.) The Alleged Decline of Christian Influence.—In estimating the present position and prospects of the Christian religion, it is necessary to refer to matters which are regarded by its friends and foes as tokens of its declining influence.

First, it is said that there are signs that Christianity has lost, or is losing, its moral influence. Ordinances and institutions which owe their sanctity to Christian influence are no longer socially observed. The Sunday, for instance, is being slowly transformed into a day of pleasure. Still more significant, it is alleged, is the lowering of moral standards: that which was once regarded as harmful is now treated as legitimate; the increase of luxury has led many to treat indulgences as though they were necessaries; the wish to live according

;

lated a passionate eagerness for wealth, and the determination to have it has led to a disregard of the code of honour, while the possession of the good things of life, as they are called, has produced enervation of character restlessness, born of ease, has destroyed steadiness of habit; and impatience of toil has driven men to seek riches in doubtful rather than in diligent methods. these ways, it is said, the claims of the Christian life are subordinated to the interests of the moment.

In

Against this must be set the fact that the apprehensions which here find expression have been common in all ages; they cannot be accepted as evidence of the declining influence of Christianity without some more tangible evidence. Earnestness, ambitious of greater Christian consistency, is always alive to contemporary evils. "The Lord's day is become the devil's market day" was the complaint of a bishop in 1724. Immorality at the same time was considered to be so rampant that men said, "Our light looks like the evening of the world." It is thus that men who measure public manners by the measure of their philanthrophic desires will ever speak. But for the purpose of the scientific historian, contemporary morals must be measured by a comparison of facts and statistics, and not by the despondency of the good. When, therefore, we find a steady diminution in pauperism and crime, and a marked increase of longevity owing to a more careful regard for human life and its conditions of health and happiness, we shall see that the advance of moral improvement is steady and sure, even if not rapid enough to satisfy the desires of the good. The most wholesome sign, under these circumstances, is the dissatisfaction of the good, for it is the witness that the spirit of earnestness and devotion is still a powerful factor in social life. When we quit the warm realms of zeal and enter the cold sphere of statistics, we find that the progress of moral standards advances with slow but decisive foot. The percentage of crime is strikingly lower; the paupers are proportionately fewer; greater care for the condition of the poor indicates a more tender public conscience. Social ambitions among us are becoming more unselfish. The general moral sense is higher. Intemperance is now a disgrace; slavery is illegal, and would be impossible to any enlightened Christian society. The ethical principles of Christianity have been planted deep among our social ideas, and have revolutionized manners. In our judgment, whatever undesirable features remain as blemishes on our civilization, the standards of moral life are gradually improving, and this improvement is largely due to the prevailing force of Christian ethics.

Secondly, it is said that everywhere men are increasingly reluctant to identify themselves with the Christian worship; attendance at worship is declining; and, perhaps religion. Many discard the outward forms of Christian most startling of all, the number of those who join the ranks of the Christian ministry is steadily diminishing among all Christian denominations. This last fact is the one which Christian churches should face: a searching inquiry into the causes for the decline of candidates for the ministry of the Church would be of the greatest interest. Till such inquiry has been made we can only speculate upon causes. Among these the following have been suggested:-(a) The unsettled condition of theological opinion, due to the progress of historical criticism. This is probably one cause, and it has given rise to the question how far the Christian churches should relax the terms of subscription required by their ministers. There can be no doubt that many of the dogmas to which subscription is required are, if not obsolete, yet expressed in terms which are at least incongruous with modern ideas.