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On the other hand, the results of recent criticism are at present felt to be less destructive than the criticism of two generations ago. (b) The Christian ministry is a severer test of religious earnestness to-day than it was in the days of our fathers. The increase of luxury has set the scale of living higher. To maintain the position of a simple gentleman is more costly than it was. The remuneration of the Christian minister has not kept pace with the growing expenses of life, but the demands upon his time and resources have increased. (c) There is a widespread feeling that there are other ways open to Christian zeal besides those of the stated ministry, and the number of those who devote their lives in independent fashion to works of Christian benevolence has greatly increased of late years.

On the whole, the argument that Christianity has lost, or is losing, influence ends probably in the conclusion that certain formal aspects of Christianity have less hold upon men than formerly, but the increase of the influence of the Christian spirit is great and growing. Whether the present tendencies will end in a fatal relaxation of Christian ordinances, or in a better-proportioned estimate of their value; whether the decline of attachment to certain formal aspects of Christianity will lead to a renunciation of some of its essential principles, or will bring about a federation or union of Christian churches, are questions of deep interest, but are outside the scope of the present inquiry. It is enough for us to indicate our belief that, however much there may be to deplore in modern life, there is no real ground for believing that the social and ethical influence of Christianity has declined or is declining in the world.

(ii) Christianity and Morals.-Chiefest among those signs of progress is the influence of Christian ideas upon the principles, whether of law or custom, which now govern the world. It will no doubt always be a matter of controversy how much of the humane principles now accepted among civilized nations is due to education, experience, and evolution, and how much to direct Christian influence. Results are complex, and we must seek their ancestry in more than one line, but no reasonable person who reads the story of modern civilization can doubt that the slow acceptance of the principles taught by Christ has powerfully affected its development. "The great characteristic of Christianity," says Mr Lecky, "and the proof of its divinity, is that it has been the main source of the moral development of Europe." Only by degrees, indeed, have the principles of Christianity been accepted or, indeed, understood.

For example, take the matter of slavery. The habit of enslaving prisoners of war received its first check when the sense of Christian brotherhood created a strong feeling among Christian peoples against the enslavement of their fellow-Christians when taken prisoners. The Crusades, when Christian nations fought side by side against a pagan foe, no doubt served to strengthen this feeling of repugnance against such enslavement. By degrees, however, the sense of brotherhood extended; the family of Christ were not only those who called themselves by His name, but all those who were sharers of His redemption. To enslave a brother meant to enslave any man, for every man was a brother for whom Christ died. Thus the antislavery movement arose out of a better appreciation of the spirit of Christ; and Christian men were all along the inspiration of the movement. This example may serve as a type of many other humane movements which have imposed a sort of unwritten law upon the conscience of civilized nations.

What is called international law, for instance, has in one sense no real existence. Nations have not yet accepted

any definite written code of laws by which they are content to abide; but the broad and popular maxims, which expressed the Christianized feeling of mankind, became the basis of various erudite and influential works which may, broadly speaking, be called treatises on international law. Grotius, for example, definitely proclaimed that his book De Jure, &c., was an endeavour to present in orderly and codified form the customs and maxims which had grown out of the appreciation of Christian principles.

It has often been stated, and arguments have been founded on the statement, that Christianity laid down no rules respecting some of the great evils of the worldsuch as the status of women, slavery, and war. This is true, for Christianity is not a religion of rules, but a religion of principles; it is the introduction into human life of a new spirit, and that spirit is love. The improvements in the condition of the world, the spreading abroad of humaner principles of conduct, including humaner methods of war, are little more than the apprehension of the principles laid down by Christ and expressed by the apostolic declaration-"Love worketh no ill to his neighbour." The width of the application of the principle was made plain by Christ when He answered the question, "Who is my neighbour?" by the parable of the good Samaritan. The indications of the recognition of these principles mark stages in the history of civilization. Alcuin noted the influence of Christian principles in the treatment of slaves. Under the sceptre of Charlemagne an abhorrence of needless bloodshed gained hold upon the public mind, while in more modern times the Red Cross Society and the Geneva Convention have assuaged the horrors of the battlefield. The substitution of arbitration for war belongs to the future, but great progress has been made in the direction of peaceful solutions of international difficulties. The subject enlists Christian and humane sympathy in an increasing degree. The conference of bishops of the Anglican Church in 1897 directed attention to it, and issued a report which showed how largely both the idea and practice of arbitration had become familiar to the civilized world.

The changed conditions of modern life present, no doubt, new problems and new difficulties. There are some who despair of the application of Christian principles to the political and social questions which confront our times; but such persons overlook both the progress which has already been made, and also the fact that many of the problems which confront us to-day-e.g., the industrial problems-are problems of recent growth, which owe their existence to the rapid commercial and political changes of the 19th century. Meanwhile the remarkable widening of the direction of Christian energy, of which we shall speak later on, shows that Christian public opinion is not likely to rest satisfied with a half-hearted application of the teaching of Christ, and that, whether ultimately successful or not, there is not a department of public life, nor a phase of human need or suffering, which the Christian conscience will allow to remain outside the reach of the Christian spirit.

The widened sweep of Christian energy is evidenced in the expanded conception of missionary effort. Missionary societies have almost universally enlarged the sphere of their work-the elevation of woman, ministry to the sick, the amelioration of social conditions enter into the aim of the missionary. Time and space forbid our discussing these at length, but two or three examples will make clear how closely allied the introduction of gentler or humaner customs are with the preaching of Christianity. The Christian missionary has been influential in bringing about the mitigation, if not the cessation, of cruel popular customs like suttee and infanticide. S. III. 8

(a) Suttee.-Among the changes for the better which the 19th century witnessed was the abolition of suttee or sati, i.e., the self-destruction of the widow on the grave or funeral pyre of her husband. This was viewed in India as a virtuous or good act; hence its name, Sati, from a root signifying good or pure. The good or loyal wife was expected to follow her husband beyond the grave, to minister to him in the unseen. The custom prevailed almost universally in India in the beginning of the 19th century. In 1817 on an average two widows were burned daily in Bengal alone. In 1829 Lord William Bentinck declared the practice criminal. The English Government, in spite of many petitions declaring the religious character of the custom, supported Lord William Bentinck. The Christian Church led the way in this great reform. The agitation against the custom was begun by Carey, the missionary, in 1801. The extent of the benefit of the change may be judged when it is remembered that there are (1895) upwards of 22 millions of widows in India, all of whom would have been doomed by this cruel custom to a premature death, and more than 70,000 of these mere children under ten years of age.

anti-infanticide societies.

which a narrower age of science would have scorned; there
is scope for the play of activities undreamed of half a cen-
tury ago. Among the best circles of scientific and Christian
thought the dogmatic temper has given place to the spirit
of the historical investigator. The statement must not
be taken too widely. The dogmatic temper is still upper-
The infallibility
most in some questions of the Church.
which is so dear to the religionist has fostered this dog-
matic temper, and alike among the unenlightened advisers
of the Vatican and in the circles of evangelical ignorance
the voice of knowledge is refused and its messengers are

cast out.

On the whole, however, everywhere except in such strongholds of idolized ignorance a calmer and more equable spirit possesses Christendom. It is recognized that the so-called conflict between science and religion never (B) Infanticide. This was, and still is, largely prevalent in truly existed; the conflict was seen to be a battle between China, but Christian influence has reduced the practice, and certain theological opinions and some conclusions of Christian philanthropy, by providing orphanages, has rescued science. It was seen that in some cases the conclusions numbers of children from an early death. One missionary tells us that at Amoy there was a pond in the town known as the babies' of science had been misunderstood, and in more cases the pond; into it babies were flung by their mothers, the little bodies theological opinions were in no way parts of essential were seen floating in the water, and the inhabitants looked on Christianity, but were rather doubtful inferences, stated in with indifference. Christian teaching rendered the practice less forms incidental to a particular epoch. The wide admixture popular; the pond is now dried up, while foundling institutions provide for some 2000 children in the district. This is one illus- of error with truth, the facility with which mistaken tration among many. Infanticide is practised in India. In the deductions were accepted as of equal authority with primary judgment of one writer, at the lowest estimate fully one-third of principles, and the diverse measures applied to language by the girls born among the natives are still secretly murdered scientific and theological thinkers were recognized; and with (Houghton, Women of the Orient, p. 71; Dennis, vol. i. p. 133). In Formosa and in the Pacific Islands the same custom prevails; this recognition the most potent factors of dispute disin the latter not less than two-thirds of the children were put to appeared and a happier epoch alike for science and theology death. Against this cruel custom the missionary exercises a restraining influence. Our churches, said an agent, are practically of we may notice the totally different way in which the was inaugurated. As marks of the changes we have spoken (y) General Beneficence. But Christian energy has not confined essays in Lux Mundi were received from the way in which its influence to the mitigation of great evils. It has become Essays and Reviews were met by an earlier generation, the minister of active benevolence. Orphanages and asylums and the significant difference between the titles of two spring up in missionary stations as well as hospitals and dispens-books-one published in 1860 and the other in 1889aries, and on the staff of missionary societies are now found a certain proportion of medical missionaries. These are, if we mistake not, the product of the 19th century. It is safe to say that not a single medical missionary existed in any part of the heathen world a century ago; now there are no fewer than 217 in China alone. Evidence of the widespread humanizing influence of such agencies may be gathered from the fact that in a single year in the province of Shantung 200,000 cases were treated (Methodist New Connexion Missionary Report, 1900, p. 34). Much prejudice existed at first in the minds of Christian people. The undertaking of medical work appeared to them likely to interfere with the more distinctively religious aims of the missionary, but this feeling has almost entirely disappeared; and since Dr S. F. Green, a young American Presbyterian, went out (1847) to Ceylon, the value of the medical missionary has been recognized, and there are few missionary societies who have not some fully quali fied doctors upon their staff. To take an example, the Church Missionary Society employs more than 50 medical missionaries, and the number of patients treated in one year (1900) was—of in-patients, 11,557; and of out-patients, 641,006.

(iii.) The Happier_Relations between Scientific and Religious Thought.-There has been a marked change in the general feeling of the Church towards what is loosely called Science. Broadly speaking, we may say that the attitude of irreconcilable hostility on the part of the Church has almost entirely disappeared. The intelligent part of the Church has now consented to give to science the things which are science's. It is recognized that there is no part of the world of phenomena on which science has not a right to speak and to be heard. We must, however, remember that this is only a rough general estimate, and represents rather the existence of an altered feeling than an exact measurement of results. The improved feeling, it must be allowed, is due both to the larger and more scientific spirit which has pervaded Christendom, and also to the more reverent spirit which has characterized scientific inquiry. The contemptuous spirit of arrogant unbelief has passed away from scientific circles; the widening range of knowledge has left room for wonders

both dealing with the relations of science and Christianity. Mr Draper called his book the Conflict between Science and Religion. Dr Andrew White called his far abler and more judicious work, The Conflict of Science and Theology. One reason for the happier spirit which now prevails probably lies in the conviction that the battle for intellectual freedom has been finally won. No investigator now needs to veil his conclusions in a demoralizing ambiguity or to apologize for pursuing truth. Simultaneously with this secured position of the scientific inquirer there came faster to the world-and the fact is most significant-treatises on behalf of faith from the studies and laboratories of men of science.

The prevalence of this happier spirit has brought about a more wholesome and benevolent view of non-Christian beliefs. The science of comparative religion has been of service here. The faiths of the world have been investigated in a calm and impartial spirit. No thoughtful Christian man would use the language which was common fifty or sixty years ago when speaking of the creeds of other lands. The elements of truth in other creeds are now sought for; crude forms of worship are no longer looked upon as half hypocritical; Mahommed is no longer denounced as an impostor. This more temperate view of other men's creeds has naturally been followed by a great tenderness of spirit, and in some quarters the fear has been expressed that this tenderness may give rise to a kind of indifference in matters of faith. It is probable that, in their effort to do justice to heathen religions, some writers have overlooked or minimized the grave moral and social evils which are inextricably woven up with low theological ideas; but, nevertheless, on the whole it is remarkable that the generation which has learned to look with kindlier eyes upon other religions coincides with the generation which has shown the most ardent missionary

enthusiasm. The truth seems to be that the result of calm investigation has brought out into clearer relief the true significance and the moral and spiritual superiority of Christianity. Men in separating their thoughts of Christianity from the symbols of the churches, and in forming through the witness of their creeds clearer conceptions of human need, have been able to realize alike the simplicity and the marvellous fitness of Christianity to promote the elevation of human character, and thus they are able to recognize Christianity as a great evolutionary force in human history.

(iv.) The Question of Reunion. The progress of Christianity has, in the view of many, been hindered by the numberless parties and organizations into which it has been divided. It is possible, however, that those who regard the divisions of Christendom with dismay may have overlooked the possible advantages of the conditions which they deplore. Apart from the energy which rivalry may stimulate, it must not be forgotten that only by the recognition of such divisions could some of the most precious of human inheritances have been preserved. Religious freedom, the shield and guardian of intellectual integrity in matters of faith, was purchased at the price of division. The endeavour to preserve union by external pressure failed, and it is now realized that the outward union of Christendom must begin with the promotion of an inward harmony. The prospects of a great external reunion of Christendom involve questions too large to be discussed here. It may, however, be well to notice that there are in recent times features, unfavourable as well as favourable, to the hopes of reunion. The stiffening of the attitude of the Roman Catholic Church which has been noticeable since the declaration of infallibility; exaggerated or mistaken ecclesiastical conceptions favoured by certain schools of thought; the tendency to treat variations of custom as transgressions of an imaginary divine law; the creation of new sins, of which denominationalism is only too fruitful: these and other features of modern Christianity are unfavourable to reunion. On the other hand, the development of a passionate yearning for reunion which has found voice all the world over; the frank recognition of the disastrous results of division, especially in the modern mission field; the growth of the practical, and the decay of the dogmatic spirit, are all favourable. Meanwhile the desire for reunion has not been confined to empty wishes. Practical steps have not been wanting. The fusion of two important bodies in Scotland-the Free Church and the United Presbyterian Church-is perhaps the most remarkable example of successful negotiation. Other negotiations are in process, and in Scotland devout men are working for a better understanding between the Church of Scotland and the Scottish Episcopal Church. Complete reunion is as yet far off, but some concordat or federation among the churches of the Reformation is a vision which many good and wise men cherish as neither unreasonable nor impossible. In the view of many the existence of common work carried on by interdenominational societies is calculated to show that some such federation may be legitimately and hopefully desired, if not expected. The strength of the practical and individual movements in Christendom is illustrated in what follows.

III. THE MEASURE OF CHRISTIAN PROGRESS IN THE LIGHT OF CERTAIN ALTERED CONDITIONS. Modern life, and what is called the modern spirit, have altered the conditions of Christendom. Men can more clearly measure the relation of Christian churches to one another; they can more clearly see their duty to the world. The scientific spirit has helped to reduce to their fitting proportion many matters which were once deemed

of primary importance. discussed are not left untouched; theological acrimony, if not extinct, does not cover the same field as before. The dogmatic temper has given way to a kindlier and more practical spirit, and we are able to measure the progress of Christianity by the aspirations which are now cherished, and by the change of Christian methods in practical, personal, and co-operative directions.

Questions which former ages

(i.) The Growth of the Practical Spirit.-There has been a marked change in ideals in recent times, and the change has mainly been in the very strong preference for work which, for distinction's sake, we may call practical. It is needful, perhaps, to explain what is meant: the energies of Christian bodies were in the main directed in former years to work which was almost exclusively ecclesiastical and controversial-i.e., the members of different Christian societies or churches endeavoured to enlarge the borders of these societies by bringing in those who were careless in life or hostile in creed. There was, if we may use the phrase, a certain egotistic flavour about their work; and they were satisfied if they could maintain their own services, and bring in some aliens into their fold. Of recent years men have been desirous of wider and more practical benevolence; they have not merely wished to bring men into their church; they sought to carry the power of Christian influence and of the Christian spirit among men. They have looked at the great world, and they have been filled with the practical compassion which has prompted the inquiry, "What can we do for them?" The result has been the development of a vast amount of practical activity, more or less unrelated to the dogmatic restraints of former times. This spirit of practical Christianity has found expression in a variety of organizations-in societies, guilds, brigades, institutes, and what are known as settlements. The "settlement means the residence in the very centre of the poorer quarters of great cities of men and women who are ready to labournot always on distinctly or distinctively religious linesamong the needy and uncultivated classes. The aim is to bring culture, knowledge, harmless recreation, and above all, personal influence, to the very doors of the neglected. The watchword of such settlements is personal service. young Oxford man, brilliant and devoted, Arnold Toynbee by name, has the credit of leading the way in this class of beneficent work; at all events, it was his name that was given to the Hall in Whitechapel which, under the fostering care and influence of the Rev. S. A. Barnett, was the first material embodiment of the movement. Since his time many settlements of the same or similar nature have sprung up in Great Britain and America. Young men at the universities were found to sympathize with this class of movement; and now there is in London an Oxford house, a Cambridge, an Eton, and a Harrow mission, besides many others, which act as channels for the guidance and employment of Christian or philanthropic energy. Some of these

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indeed, many-are now in connexion with some one or other of the kindred bodies; but the general features of all these settlements is the recognition of any practical work calculated to minister to the cultivation and happiness of the too long neglected classes. The practical spirit shows itself also in the formation of guilds, camps, and institutes. Lads and girls, and even children are gathered together; efforts are made to organize for them not only educational and religious opportunities, but harmless recreation-holidays and excursions are arranged, games are provided, and devoted men and women identify themselves in kindly and sympathetic fashion as partners in these recreations and sharers in these games. Almost universally the influence of Christian people has been drawn into channels which an earlier generation

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would have regarded as somewhat too secular to be worthy of Christian zeal. Societies like the Kyrle Society have sprung up, and endeavoured to brighten and beautify the life of the poor. The very remarkable movement known as the Salvation Army (q.v.) came under the influence of the practical spirit we are speaking of, and the social side of its work has been in some respects its most successful and satisfactory achievement.

The signs of this practical spirit meet us on all sides -at home in orphanages and asylums; abroad in dispensaries, medical missions (of which we have spoken), and leper settlements. Looking at these facts, observers of history have pointed out that the guiding force of Christian life has passed through the hands of various races. The Hebrew race gave it inspiration, the Greek gave it intellectual expression, the Roman gave it opportunity of world ascendancy, the Teutonic intensified its spiritual individualism, and the Anglo-Saxon race is now giving to it wide and varied practical application. However this may be, the practical work is now multitudinous and its development rapid. Toynbee Hall, the first of the settlements, was started in 1885; and there are now more than 70 such establishments in existence. 35 in the United States; the resident workers in these are reckoned to be at least 300. It would be impossible to chronicle all the forms in which the practical energy displays itself. It is enough to notice that it includes reformatories, homes for waifs and strays, rescue societies, inebriates' homes, charity organizations, nursing institutions for the sick poor, holiday funds, boys' brigades, working men's clubs, reading rooms, athletic associations, homes for working girls, newspaper boys, bootblacks, drift children's missions, and others too numerous to mention. The work, though mainly directed towards the poor, does not overlook the wealthier classes: the sea-side camps and public school missions are evidence of this fact.

(ii) Individualism in Work.—The practical direction of Christian activity has been accompanied by a great out burst of free and individual effort. The various Christian bodies have their agencies and societies for practical work, but one feature of modern Christian enthusiasm is its strong and marked individualism. Many of the most remarkable and successful efforts of practical energy have been due to individual rather than ecclesiastical initiative. Mr Müller's work at Bristol, Mr Quarrier's in Scotland, Dr Barnardo's in London, the enormous and world-wide organizations known as the Young Men's Christian Association, the Christian Endeavour Society, the St Andrew's Brotherhood, all owe their beginning to personal devotion. (iii.) Interdenominational Movements.-There is a certain quantity of Christian energy and force which does not seem able to work through existing organizations. It is not for us to suggest reasons-we can only chronicle results. It may be that the advance of critical thought has made it impossible for certain minds to accept the real or supposed theological bondage of the churches, and that, as a consequence, a considerable portion of Christian and philanthropic earnestness has escaped into other channels; it may be that the discords or jealousies of the denominations have alienated certain ardent natures; but however this may be, there is no doubt of the great increase of independent and undenominational religious and humanitarian work.

IV. CONCLUSION.

The present force of Christianity in the world is the result of a steady growth in numbers and influence. The religion which was the religion of an obscure handful of men is now, after a lapse of nineteer hundred years, the religion of a third of the human race and by far the most vigorous and influential nations. Further,

the religion which took its rise among the Semites has become the religion of the most powerful branch of the Aryan family; and, lastly, the race which is possessed of the greatest power of expression, the keenest sense of liberty, which possesses the freest institutions and the most marked individuality, is the race which includes the churches of the Reformation. It is in this race of strongly marked individuality that, as might be expected, the largest variety of denominations is to be found. These divisions are partly a strength and partly a weakness; in the past they have been of service in preserving intellectual independence, liberty of conscience, and religious toleration. It may be doubted, however, whether, now that the cause of freedom has been won, these divisions may not be a source of growing weakness, but against any possible ill results must be set the unifying influences now at work, the desire for reunion, the pressure of political circumstances, and the experiences of missionary enterprise. The modern spirit, moreover, if we may use a vague but useful term, tends to treat ecclesiastical and dogmatic differences as matters of lessening importance. The value of denominational barriers is depreciated in public esteem. With larger views of life and nature, of the world's history and of human interests, the minds of men are seeking the common principles on which the denominations are united, and are willing to minimize matters of difference. There is arising a powerful religious movement which is bent on service and not on controversial theology. Vast organizations on this basis are appearing in all parts of the world. In the view of some these non-denominational organizations are the seminal principles of the future Christian brotherhood-the church of the latter days-destined to grow larger and more vigorous while the more formal ecclesiastical systems slowly wither away. These are conjectures. The simple and striking fact which meets our view is not merely the widespread character of Christianity, but the marvellous way in which the forces and influences of the world are gathered into the hands of Christian nations.

LITERATURE.-Missions and Social Progress, by Dr DENNIS.— The Growth of the Kingdom of God, by Rev. S. L. GULICK. Religious Tract Society.-Gesta Christi, by C. LORING BRACE. Hodder and Stoughton. — Christianity and Social Problems, by LYMAN ABBOTT. Messrs James Clarke and Co., 1896.—Superstition and Force, by HENRY C. LEA. Philadelphia, U.S.A., 1878.-Historical Essays, by BISHOP LIGHTFOOT. Macmillan.-Industries and Wealth of Nations, by MULHALL. Longmans, 1896.—Practical Christian Rev. WILBUR F. CRAFTS. Sociology. Funk and Wagnalls, London and Toronto.-Civilization of Christendom, by BERNARD BOSANQUET. Swan Sonnenschein and Co., 1893.-Influence of Christianity on War, by J. F. BETHUNE-BAKER. Macmillan, 1888.-Problems of Religious Progress, by D. DORCHESTER, D.D. New York, Hunt and Eaton, 1895.-Influence of Christianity on International Law, by C. M. KENNEDY. London, Macmillan, 1856.-Social Evolution, by B. KIDD. London.-The Forward Movement, by Rev. G. T. PIERSON.-Christianity judged by its Fruits, by Dr CROSLEGH. S.P.C.K.-Spiritual Expansion of the Empire. London, S.P.G.-History of Church Missionary Society, by EUGENE STOCK. London, C.M.S.-Modern Missions and Culture, by Dr WARNACK. Edinburgh, Gemmell.-Christianity and the Progress of Man, by Prof. DOUGLAS MACKENZIE. Edinburgh, Oliphant, Anderson, and Ferrier.-Missionary Conference, 1894. London, S.P.C.K.-History of the S.P.C.K. London, S.P.C.K. (W. B. R.)

Christian Science, a system of theosophic and therapeutic doctrine, which was originated in America about 1866 by Mrs Mary Baker Eddy, of Lynn, Massachusetts, and has in recent years obtained a number of adherents both in the United States and in European countries. Mrs Eddy based her teaching on the Bible, and on the principles that man's essential nature is spiritual, and that the Spirit of God being Love and Good, moral and physical evil are contrary to that Spirit, and represent an absence of the True Spirit which was in Jesus Christ. There is but one Mind, one God,

one Christ, and nothing real but Mind. Matter and sickness are subjective states of error, delusions which can be dispelled by the mental process of a true knowledge of God and Christ, or Christian science. Jesus himself healed by those means, which were therefore natural and not miraculous, and promised that those who believed should do curative works like his. About the year 1867 Mrs Eddy came forward as a healer by Mind-cure, and rapidly obtained fellow-workers and students. In 1876 a Christian Scientist Association was organized. Mrs Eddy had published in the preceding year a book entitled Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures. In 1879 she became the pastor of a "Church of Christ, Scientist" in Boston, and also founded there her "Massachusetts Metaphysical College" for the purpose of medical instruction. In 1883 she started an official organ of her teaching, The Christian Science Journal. The first denominational chapel was built at Oconto, Wisconsin, in 1886; and in 1894 a great memorial church was erected in Boston. Mrs Eddy's publications also include Retrospection and Introspection (1891), Unity of Good and Unreality of Evil (1887), Rudimental Divine Science (1891), Christian Healing (1886).

Christiania, the capital of Norway, forming a county (amt) to itself, and situated on the Aker river, at the head of Christiania Fjord, in 59° 54′ 44′′ N. lat. and 10° 43′ 28′′ E. long. During the second half of the 19th century the city grew rapidly, many buildings of wood giving place to structures of brick or stone. New suburbs, spread over a wide area, were built on the rising ground to the west and north-west, around and beyond the royal park. This rapid expansion was due for the most part to the increase in the population. It was also due in part to the advance which the people made in material prosperity. For instance, in the ten years ending with 1898 it was estimated that the gross value of the property owned in Christiania had increased by 68 per cent. and the gross value of the incomes of the inhabitants by 83 per cent. In the year 1898 alone the gross value of the property was estimated to have risen from 17 millions sterling to nearly 20 millions sterling, and the gross value of the incomes from 4 millions to over 4 millions sterling-remarkable figures for a place of only 200,000 inhabitants. The university, which had in 1897 some 60 professors and 1200 students (1600 in 1889), embraces five faculties (theology, law, medicine, history and philology, mathematics and natural sciences), and possesses several valuable collections-a library of 350,000 vols.; museum of Norse antiquities, especially rich in objects of the Viking age, including two ancient viking ships; an ethnographical museum, a numismatic collection, a cabinet of minerals, a botanical collection, and a zoological collection. In 1899-1900 a large historical museum was built to shelter the Norwegian National Museum, the museum of northern antiquities, and certain of the university collections. Other buildings deserving mention are the national theatre (1899); the sculpture museum (1882), an Italian Renaissance building; the industrial arts museum (1876); the new Freemasons' lodge (1894), one of the handsomest structures in the city; and a conservatory of music (1883). The city is tolerably well adorned with monuments to distinguished Norwegians -Wergeland, Asbjörnsen, Eilert Sundt, Schweigaard, Kjerulf, besides King Christian IV. and others.

On the east side of the river Aker is the suburb of Oslo, with the existing episcopal palace, and an old bishop's palace, in which James VI. of Scotland (I. of England) was betrothed to Princess Anne of Denmark. In the environs of the city are the royal pleasure castle

of Oscarshal (1847-52), on the peninsula Bygdö (Ladugaard) to the west of the city, with a historical museum (1881), and some ancient churches and houses brought there from different parts of the country. On Hovedö (Head Island) in the fjord, immediately opposite to Akershus (not Agershus), are the ruins of a Cistercian monastery, founded in 1147 by monks from Kirkstead (Lincolnshire), and burnt down in 1532. Then there are the pleasure resorts of St Hans Haugen (150 ft.), Frognersæter (1362 ft.), Holmenkollen sanatorium (1116 ft.), where the famous ski (snow-shoe) races are held in February, and Voksenkollen sanatorium (1650 ft.), opened in 1900.

Christiania is a place of considerable industrial activity, which developed rapidly in the last two decades of the 19th century. Except for two large shipbuilding yards, one with a floating dock, the other with a dry dock, most of the manufactories are concentrated in the suburb of Sagene, on the north side of the city, deriving their motive power from the numerous falls of the river Aker. They embrace factories for cotton and woollen spinning and weaving, paper, flour, soap and oil, bricks and tiles, matches, nails (especially horse-shoe nails), margarine, foundries and engineering shops, wood-pulp, tobacco, matches, linen, glass, sail-cloth, hardware, gunpowder, chemicals, with sawmills, breweries, and distilleries. In 1898 there were 375 factories at work in Christiania, and they employed 17,383 hands. There is also a busy trade in the preparation of granite paving-stones, and in the storing and packing of ice. From about the middle of the 19th century Christiania has been the principal emporium of South Norway, and has long since far outstripped Bergen in the volume of its commerce. The total value of the trade of the port increased from £4,958,600 (imports, £3,862,000; exports, £1,096,600) in 1872, to £5,492,000 in 1882, to £7,738,000 in 1892, and to £8,567,200 in 1898. The imports are more than four times the exports in respect of value, the figures for 1898 being £7,987,600 and £1,579,600 respectively. The former consist principally of grain and flour (£550,000 to £650,000), woollens (£450,000 to £550,000), coffee (£425,000 to £475,000), iron-raw and manufactured (£750,000 in 1898; £367,000 1898; £367,000 in 1894), cottons (£350,000 to £400,000), coal (£250,000 to £275,000), bacon and salt meat (£250,000 to £275,000), oils (£175,000 to over £250,000), sugar (£185,500 to £230,000), machinery (£362,000 in 1898; £149,000 in 1894), flax, jute, and hemp, paper-hangings, paints, colours, &c., wines and spirits, raw tobacco, copper, zinc, lead, and tin, silk, molasses, and other commodities. The principal exports are wood-pulp (£225,000 to £325,000), timber (£155,000), nails, paper, butter and margarine (£103,000), matches, condensed milk, fish, leather and hides, ice, sealskins, &c. Of the imports, Great Britain supplies the greater part of the cotton and woollen yarn, the machinery (including ships), and the raw metals; the United States about one-half of the oils and fats, and a large proportion of the food-stuffs, and skins, feathers, &c. Of the exports, almost the whole of the timber goes to Great Britain, together with the larger portion of the paper and food-stuffs (butter, &c.). In 1872 the port was entered by 1787 vessels of 393,600 tons burden; in 1891 by 2078 vessels of 817,800 tons; and in 1899 by 2710 vessels of 1,000,740 tons. Although Christiania owns a smaller merchant fleet than Bergen, her shipping increased from 264 vessels of 104,000 tons in 1881 to 401 vessels of 206,150 tons in 1892, and to 398 vessels of 380,525 tons in 1900. Early in 1899 the municipality voted £47,000 for construction of a pier, a harbour for fishing-boats, protected by a mole and a quay, 345 ft. long, on the shore

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