also, or plane geometry in the upper grades), geography, history of the United States, and elementary natural science, including human physiology and hygiene. Physical training, vocal music, drawing, and manual training are often taught. Sometimes a foreign language (Latin, German, or French) and the study of general history are begun. Formal instruction in manners and morals is not often found, but the discipline of the school offers the best possible training in the habits of truthfulness, honesty, obedience, regularity, punctuality, and conformity to order. Religious teaching is not permitted, although the exercises of the day are often opened with reading from the Bible, the repetition of the Lord's Prayer, and the singing of a hymn. Corporal punishment is not infrequent, but is forbidden by law in New Jersey, and in many States may be used only under restrictions. Text-books are used as the basis of the instruction given, and the pupils "recite" in class to the teacher, who, by use of illustration and comment, makes clear the subject-matter of the prescribed lesson. The purpose of the recitation method is to make the work of each pupil help that of his companion. Skilfully used, it is the most effectual instrument yet devised for elementary school instruction. In 1897-98 there were 14,589,036 pupils enrolled in the public elementary schools. The average length of the school term was 1431 days. There were about 380,000 teachers engaged in the elementary schools. About 1,250,000 pupils were at the same time receiving elementary instruction in private or parochial schools.

The secondary school course is normally four years in length. The principal subjects studied are Latin, Greek,

French, German, algebra, geometry, physics, Secondary chemistry, physical geography, physiology, rhetschools. oric, English literature, civics, and history. Although but 11.36 per cent. of the students in public high schools, and 25.36 per cent. of those in private secondary schools, are preparing for a college or scientific school, yet the conditions prescribed by the colleges for admission to their courses affect powerfully both the secondary school programme and the methods of teaching. Of late years no educational topic has been more widely discussed than that as to the proper relations of secondary schools and colleges. As a result, special examinations for admission to college are either greatly simplified or entirely abolished, and the secondary studies are much more substantial and better taught than formerly. An increasing proportion of secondary school teachers are college graduates. In 1897-98 there were 5315 public secondary schools and 1990 private secondary schools, or 7305 in all. In these schools 27,298 teachers were employed, 14,681 of them being women. The secondary school students numbered 554,825, of whom 449,600 were in public high schools. The boys numbered 241,359 and the girls 313,466. The most extraordinary characteristic of secondary education in recent years is the rapid increase in the number of students taking Latin as a school subject. In nine years the number of such students has increased from 100,144 (33-62 per cent. of the total) to 274,293 (49-44 per cent.). Meanwhile the proportion of those studying physics and chemistry has fallen off slightly. The rate of increase in the number of pupils who study Latin is fully twice as great as the rate of increase in the number of secondary school students. Between 1890 and 1896, while the number of students in private secondary schools increased 12 per cent., the number of students in public secondary schools increased 87 per cent. Since 1894 the number of students in private secondary schools has steadily declined. In 1897-98 there were 34 public high schools for boys only, 29 for girls only, and the remainder (5252) were co-educational. In the same year there were

351 private secondary schools for boys only, 537 for girls only, and 1212 which were co-educational.

The colleges.

The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the English colleges of Oxford and of Cambridge, has developed into an institution which has no counterpart in Europe. The college course of study, at first three years in length, was soon extended to four years, and the classes are uniformly known as the freshman, the sophomore, the junior, and the senior. Whether or not, in view of changed educațional and social conditions, a college course of four years is not too long is a question now under serious discussion. The traditional degree which crowns the college course is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). The studies ordinarily insisted on in the case of candidates for this degree are Latin, Greek, mathematics, English, philosophy, political economy, history, at least one modern European language (French or German), and at least one natural science. The degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Philosophy (Ph.B.), and Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) are often conferred by colleges upon students who have pursued systematic courses of study which do not include Greek or the amount of Latin required for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The best colleges give instruction which is similar in character to that given in Germany in the three upper classes of the gymnasium and in the introductory courses at the universities, in France in the two upper classes of the lycée and in the first two years of university study, and in England in the upper form of the public schools and during the years of undergraduate residence at Oxford and Cambridge. Since 1870 the colleges have developed enormously. Their resources have multiplied, the number of their students has increased by leaps and bounds, the programme of studies has broadened and deepened, the standards have been raised, and the efficiency of the instruction has greatly increased. Rigidly prescribed courses of study have given way to elective courses, and a knowledge of Greek is no longer required for the degree of A.B. at such influential colleges as Harvard, Columbia, Cornell, and Williams. A strong effort is being made to have the leading colleges give but one degree, that of Bachelor of Arts, and to confer that upon those who complete any substantial course of college studies. A marked change has taken place in the attitude of the college authorities toward the students. A generation ago the college president was a paterfamilias. He knew each student and came into direct personal contact with him. The president and the faculty had supervision not only of the studies of the students, but of their moral and religious life as well. The older type of college professor was not always a great scholar, but he was a student of human nature, with keen intuitions and shrewd insight. The new type is more scholarly in some special direction, often regards teaching as a check upon opportunities for investigation, and disdains troubling himself with a student's personal concerns or intellectual and moral difficulties. The change has not been altogether for the better, and a desirable reaction is now under way. Each college, however small or illequipped, exercises a helpful local influence. Ninety per cent. of all college students attend an institution not more than one hundred miles from their own homes. Few colleges have a national constituency, and even in these cases an overwhelming preponderance of the students come from the immediate neighbourhood. This explains, in a measure, the powerful influence which the college has exercised in the life of the nation. While hardly more than one in a hundred of the white male youth of the country has had a college education, yet the college graduates have furnished one-half of all the Presidents of

S. III. 86

the United States, most of the justices of the Supreme Court, about one-half of the Cabinet officers and United States senators, and nearly one-third of the House of Representatives. Before the Revolution eleven colleges were founded. From 1776 to 1800, twelve more were added; from 1800 to 1830, thirty-three; from 1830 to 1865, one hundred and eighty; from 1865 to 1898, two hundred and thirty-six. The present total is 472. Their standards, efficiency, and equipment are very diverse, many of the so-called colleges being less effective than some of the better organized secondary schools. Except in New York and Pennsylvania, there is no statutory restriction upon the use of the name college. This is an abuse which is beginning to attract public attention. The number of undergraduate collegiate and technical school students has increased from 573 to each million of inhabitants in 1872, to 1193 in 1898. In 1897 the whole number of professedly collegiate students enrolled in colleges for men, for women, and for both sexes was 84,955, of whom 52,439 were men. There was, therefore, one college student to each 831 of population. There are 114 colleges, exclusive of those for women, enrolling 31,941 students, and as a rule possessing the largest endowments, which are under no ecclesiastical control. Fifty-nine colleges, enrolling 5954 students, are Roman Catholic. Two hundred and eighty-four, enrolling 29,104 students, are under the control of some one of the Protestant denominations.

In the United States the title " university" is used indiscriminately of institutions which are in reality

The universities.

universities, of institutions which are colleges, and of institutions which are so ill-equipped as not to take rank with good secondary schools. Only time and a greatly increased capacity to distinguish the various types of higher schools will remedy this error. Putting aside tentative and unsuccessful attempts to develop genuine university instruction much earlier, it may safely be said that the opening of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore in 1876 began the present movement to organize carefully advanced study and research, requiring a college education of those who wish to enter upon it. This is university instruction properly so-called, and though found elsewhere, it is given chiefly at fourteen institutions: California University, Catholic University of America, Chicago University, Clark University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, Michigan University, Pennsylvania University, Princeton University, Stanford University, Wisconsin University, and Yale University. All of these institutions, except the Catholic University and Clark University, are colleges. The combination of collegiate and university instruction under one corporation and one executive administration is distinctive of higher education in the United States, and its chief source of strength. The crowning honour of the university student is the degree of Ph.D., although that of A. M.-obtainable in less time and much easier conditions-is also sought. The minimum period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D. is two years after obtaining the bachelor's degree; but in practice, three, and even four, years of study are found necessary. addition to carrying on an investigation in the field of his main subject of study, the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required to pass examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to possess a reading knowledge of French and German (often of Latin as well), and to submit usually in printed form-the dissertation which embodies the results of his researches. The methods of instruction in the universities are the lecture, discussion, and work in laboratory or seminary—the latter transplanted

In

from the German universities. The degree of Master of Arts is conferred upon students who, after one year of university residence and study, pass certain prescribed examinations. This degree, like those of D.D., S.T.D., and LL.D., is often conferred by colleges and universities as a purely honorary distinction. The degree of Ph.D. is not so conferred any longer by the best universities. Not a few of the universities maintain schools of law and medicine. Harvard and Yale universities maintain schools of theology as well. The learned publications issued by the universities, or under the direction of university professors, are of great importance, and constitute an imposing body of scientific literature. The national and State governments make increasing use of university officials for public service requiring special training or expert knowledge. In 1871-72 there were only 198 resident graduate (or university) students in the United States. In 1887 this number had risen to 1237, and in 1897 to 4392. These figures are exclusive of professional students, and include only those who are studying in what would be called, in Germany, the philosophical faculty. (See also UNIVERSITIES.) Most extensive provision is made for professional, technical, and special education of all kinds, and for the care and training of the dependent and defective classes, as well as for the education of the Indian and in the Southern states of the negro.

1900.

The most complete exposition of education as it now exists will be found in Butler, Education in the United States, Albany, N.Y., 1900, a series of nineteen monographs which, taken together, cover the whole educational activity of the United States, prepared for the Government educational exhibit at the Paris Exposition of The official Reports, issued annually, of the Commissioner of Education, at Washington, contain the latest and most authoritative educational statistics of every sort. They also include treatises on special topics, and are indispensable works of reference. The only historical sketch is Boone's History of Education in the United States, New York, 1889. Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts School System, New York, 1894, is accurate and valuable. Contemporary discussions of educational topics of interest are provided from year to year in the published Proceedings of the National Educational Association, a voluntary organization of teachers of every grade. (N. M. B.)

Edward VII. (ALBERT EDWARD), King of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, (1841-), the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and of Albert, Prince Consort, was born at Buckingham Palace on 9th November 1841. He was created prince of Wales and earl of Chester on 4th December following, and was baptized by the archbishop of Canterbury on 25th January 1842. In his childhood he was carefully educated, under the immediate supervision of the Queen, by the Dowager Lady Lyttelton, governess of the royal children; and in his boyhood successively by the Rev. Henry Mildred Birch, formerly an assistant master at Eton, and by Mr F. W. Gibbs, assisted by the Rev. C. F. Tarver and Mr Herbert W. Fisher. He afterwards resided successively at Edinburgh, studying chemistry in its industrial applications under Professor (afterwards Lord) Playfair at the University; at Christ Church college, Oxford; and at the University of Cambridge, where he was a student at Trinity under Dr Whewell. In November 1858 he was made a Knight of the Garter, and received a commission as colonel in the army, ascending in due time to the rank of field-marshal. In 1859 he travelled in Italy and Spain, returning to pursue his studies at the universities, and availed himself of the long vacation of 1860 to pay a visit, under the incognito of "Lord Renfrew," to the United States, where he was received with cordiality, and to Canada, which welcomed him with enthusiasm. The duke of Newcastle, secretary of state for the colonies, acted as his guide and

mentor upon this occasion. Upon the completion of his Cambridge course in June 1861 he joined the camp at the Curragh, where he acquainted himself with the details of military duty. While thus engaged he was, in common with the entire nation, overwhelmed by the unexpected death of his father, 13th December 1861, after a very brief illness. For long the prince remained in absolute seclusion, but in 1862 fulfilled a wish of the deceased Prince Consort by undertaking a tour in the Holy Land under the guidance of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, afterwards dean of Westminster, who had already travelled in the East and written Sinai and Palestine. The travellers departed in February and returned in June. Stanley's Sermons preached in the East was among the fruits of their expedition. Early in 1863 the prince was sworn of the Privy Council, and took his seat in the House of Lords as duke of Cornwall. About the same time the estate of Sandringham, in Norfolk, was purchased for him out of the savings of his minority. His town residence was fixed at Marlborough House. His impending marriage to the Princess Alexandra, daughter of Christian IX., king of Denmark (born 1st December 1844), had already been announced, and took place on 10th March in St George's Chapel, Windsor. From her first appearance on British soil the princess captivated the heart of the nation, and Tennyson uttered the public sentiment when he sang, in his ode as poet-laureate, "We are all of us Danes in our welcome of thee." Parliament granted the prince an income of £40,000 a year, exclusive of the revenues of the duchy of Cornwall, and he relinquished his right of succession to the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Prince Albert Victor, afterwards duke of Clarence, was the first offspring of the marriage, being born on 17th January 1864. The births followed of Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, duke of York, born 3rd June 1865; Princess Louise Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, by marriage duchess of Fife, born 20th February 1867; Princess Victoria Alexandra Olga Mary, born 6th July 1868; and Princess Maud Charlotte Mary Victoria, born 26th November 1869, married to Prince Charles, second son of the Crown Prince of Denmark. From the time of their marriage the prince and princess were more conspicuously before the country than had ever before been the case with any princely pair of the same position. The deep affliction of the widowed sovereign, and the burden of public care which she was now compelled to undertake, unrelieved by the participation of her mainstay and chief adviser, incapacitated her for the performance of most of the social functions of Royalty. The prince and princess of Wales stepped forward to fill her place, and by their tact and the affability of their bearing, and their diligence and punctuality in satisfying every public claim, frequently at great inconvenience to themselves, contributed not a little to that general popularity of the British monarchy among all classes which has proved so important a factor in national politics. The prince's readiness to promote every worthy cause was most marked; no one was a more constant attendant at the meetings and gatherings for objects of public utility in which his position as a prince of the blood royal would permit him to take part, and his speeches were always most effective from their excellent sense and clear enunciation. The most important external event of these years was a tour to Egypt, undertaken in 1869 in company with the duke of Sutherland, Sir Samuel Baker, and others, an account of which was published by Mrs William Grey. The prince also visited Ireland more than once, and opened the International Exhibition of 1871.

On 23rd November 1871 it was announced that the prince would be prevented from paying a visit which had been arranged to the Maharajah Dhuleep Singh by a feverish

attack. It soon appeared that the malady was typhoid, contracted, as was supposed, on a visit to Scarborough. The case became so serious that on 29th November the Queen and Princess Alice hurried to Sandringham, where the prince had repaired on feeling the first symptoms of illness. On 1st December there was a slight rally, but on 8th December so serious a relapse occurred that all the royal family came to Sandringham, and for some days the prince's life was despaired of. Under the skilful treatment of Sir William Jenner, Sir William Gull, and Sir James Paget, however, the crisis was surmounted by 16th December, and by Christmas Day the danger was regarded as virtually over. On 27th February 1872 a public thanksgiving was held at St Paul's, amid the most imposing and most affecting demonstrations of public joy and gratitude throughout the empire. The importance attaching to the life of the heir to the Throne was emphasized by the consciousness of his danger and his escape. A republican agitation, indeed, which had seemed to be gathering strength throughout the year in connexion with labour disputes, collapsed entirely, and has never been revived.

In January 1874 the prince of Wales attended the marriage at St Petersburg of his brother, the duke of Edinburgh, with the Grand Duchess Marie of Russia. In the same year he paid a historic visit to Birmingham, where Mr Joseph Chamberlain, not yet a member of Parliament, received him officially as mayor. In March 1875 it was officially announced that he would make a visit to India, carrying out an idea originally conceived by the first Indian viceroy, Earl Canning. He was supposed to travel as heir-apparent, not as representative of the Queen; but the characters could not be kept apart, and in fact the prince's visit was a political event of great importance. Leaving England on 11th October, he was received at Bombay by the viceroy, Lord Northbrook. Here he met a very large number of Indian feudatory princes, whose acquaintance he subsequently improved by visiting at their courts during the seventeen weeks which he spent in the country. During these four months the prince travelled nearly 8000 miles by land and 2500 miles by sea, became acquainted with more rajahs than had all the viceroys who had reigned over India, and saw more of the country than any living Englishman. The rajahs were enchanted by his tact and urbanity. The visit, moreover, led up, as was probably intended, to the Queen's assumption of the title of empress of India in the following year.

The prince's life after this date was full of conspicuous public appearances. In 1885 he visited Ireland at a time of much political excitement, and was received enthusiastically in many quarters and without symptoms of ill-will in any. In 1886 he filled the presidency of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, opened the Mersey Tunnel, and laid the first stone of the Tower Bridge. In 1887 a large share of the arrangements for the Queen's Jubilee devolved upon him. On 27th July 1889 his eldest daughter, Princess Louise, was married to the duke of Fife. In the autumn he paid a semi-incognito visit to Paris, where he has always been highly popular, viewed the Exhibition, and ascended the Eiffel Tower. In 1890 he opened the Forth Bridge. On 14th January 1892, however, a heavy blow fell upon him and his house by the death of his eldest son, Prince Albert Victor, duke of Clarence and Avondale, after only five days' illness. The young prince, who with his brother had made the tour of the world in H.M.S. Bacchante, and after a short career at Oxford and Cambridge was just settling down to play his part in public life, had recently become engaged to Princess Victoria Mary of Teck (born 26th May 1867), and the popularity of the