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October. In the month of June the water is clear and carries practically no suspended matter, but by August it is full of dark red-brown sediment brought down by the Blue Nile and the Atbara from the plateaux of Abyssinia, and is estimated to be then carrying 8 cubic yards per second; by September this has been reduced to half the amount, and then diminishes rapidly. On the island of Elephantine at Assuan is the well-known Nilometer, dating from ancient Egyptian times, and altered and extended in Roman times, while the remains of other ancient Nilometers exist at Philæ, Edfu, and Esna, together with inscriptions recording about forty high Niles in the XXVth Dynasty, recently discovered on a quay wall of the temple of Karnak. The data furnished by these give about 4 inches per century as the rate at which the Nile is silting up its bed north of the First Cataract.

Climate.-Except a narrow belt on the north along the Mediterranean shore, Egypt lies in an almost rainless area, where the temperature is high by day and sinks quickly at night in consequence of the rapid radiation under the cloudless sky. The mean temperature at Alexandria and Port Said varies between 57° F. in January and 81° F. in July; while at Cairo, where the proximity of the desert begins to be felt, it is 53° F. in January, rising to 84° F. in July. January is the coldest month, when occasionally in the Nile Valley, and more frequently in the open desert, the temperature sinks to 32° F., or even a degree or two below. The mean maximum temperatures are 99° F. for Alexandria and 110° F. for Cairo. Farther south the range of temperature becomes greater as pure desert conditions are reached.

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The relative humidity varies greatly. At Assuan the mean value for the year is only 38 per cent., that for the summer being 29 per cent. and for the winter 51 per cent.; while for Wadi Halfa the mean is 32 per cent., and 20 per cent. and 42 per cent. are the mean values for summer and winter respectively. In Alexandria and on all the Mediterranean coast of Egypt rain falls abundantly in the winter months, amounting to 8 inches in the year; but southwards it rapidly decreases, and south of latitude 31° N. but little falls.

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The most striking meteorological factor in Egypt is the persistence of the north wind throughout the year, without which the climate would be very trying. In December, January, and February, at Cairo, the north wind slightly predominates, though those from the south and west often nearly equal it, but after this the north blows almost continuously throughout the year. In May and June the prevailing direction is north and north-northeast, and for July, August, September, and October north and northwest. From the few observations that exist, it seems that farther south these southern winter winds decrease rapidly, becoming westerly, until at Assuan and Wadi Halfa the northerly winds are almost invariable throughout the year. The Khamsin, or hot sand-laden winds of the spring months, come invariably from the south. They are preceded by a rapid fall of the barometer for about a day, until a gradient from south to north is formed, then the wind commences to blow, at first gently, from the southeast; rapidly increasing in violence, it shifts through south to south-west, finally dropping about sunset. The same thing is repeated on the second and sometimes the third day, by which time the wind has worked round to the north again. During a Khamsin the temperature is high and the air extremely dry, while the dust and sand carried by the wind form a thick yellow fog obscuring the sun. The southern winds of the summer months which occur in the low latitudes north of the equator are not felt much north of Khartum.

Minerals.-The minerals of Egypt which are worked at present are very few. The salines at Meks, near Alexandria, supply all the salt needed for the country, except a small quantity used for curing fish at Lake Menzaleh; while the lakes in the Wadi Natron, 45 miles north-west of the pyramids of Gizeh, furnish carbonate of soda in large quantities. The alum of the Western Oases is no longer worked, on account of the cost of transport. The turquoise mines of Sinai, in the Wadi Moghara, are worked regularly by the Arabs of the peninsula, who sell the stones in Suez; while the emerald mines of Jebel Zubara, south of Kosseir, have been recently examined, to see if they could be profitably worked. Petroleum occurs at Jebel Zeit, on the west shore of the Gulf of Suez, but up to the present attempts to obtain it in any quantity have not proved successful. Considerable veins of hæmatite of good quality occur both in the Red Sea Hills and in Sinai, but difficulty of transport and want of fuel render them unimportant.

Flora. Since practically the whole of the country which will support vegetable life is under cultivation, the flora of Egypt is limited. Besides the industrial crops cultivated throughout the country, the most important tree is the date palm, which grows all over Egypt and in the Oases. The dom palm is first seen a little north of latitude 26° N., and extends southwards. The vine grows well, and in ancient times was largely cultivated for wine; oranges, lemons, and pomegranates also abound. The sunt tree (Acacia Nilotica) grows everywhere, as well as the tamarisk and the syca more. In the deserts several kinds of thorn bushes grow; and wherever rain or springs have moistened the ground, numerous wild flowers thrive. This is especially the case where there is also shade to protect them from the midday sun, as in some of the narrow ravines in the eastern desert and in the palm groves of the oases, where various ferns and flowers grow luxuriantly round the springs. Of late years new avenues and gardens have been extensively planted, especially near the towns; and among many trees which have been imported, the "lebbek" (Albizzia Lebbek) thrives especially, and has been very largely employed.

Fauna.-Besides the ordinary domestic animals, the camel, horse, donkey, goat, sheep, cow, water buffalo, &c., there are few wild animals. The principal are the hyena, jackal, and fox; numerous gazelles in the deserts; the ibex in Sinai and the Red Sea Hills; and rarely the moufflon, or maned sheep, is met. The crocodile is never S. III. — 87

now seen in Egypt. Birds are fairly numerous, and include eagles, vultures, kites, owls, as well as several kinds of plover; sand grouse and pigeons are abundant, the latter being kept for their dung, which is used as manure. Quails arrive from the north about September, and return in the spring, passing through Egypt in February and March. Aquatic birds are very numerous-pelicans, storks, cranes, herons, geese, and duck.

Area and Population. The total area of Egypt proper, including the Oases in the Libyan Desert, the regions between the Nile and the Red Sea, and El-Arish in Syria, but excluding the Sudan, is about 400,000 square miles; but the cultivated and settled area, that is, the Nile Valley and Delta, covers only 12,980 square miles. Canals, roads, date plantations, &c., cover 1900 square miles; 2850 square miles are comprised in the surface of the Nile, marshes, lakes, and desert.

The population is generally divisible into

(1) The fellahin, or the peasant population of the Nile Valley; (2) The Beduin, or nomad Arabs of the desert;

(3) The Nuba or Berberin, inhabitants of the Nile Valley between Assuan and Dongola.

The first of these includes both the Moslem and Coptic inhabitants, who have probably changed but little since ancient Egyptian times, in spite of their conquest at different periods by various nations, each of whom has left but little mark on the inhabitants, except the change of religion.

The Beduin, or the Arabs of the desert, are of two different classes: first, the Arabic-speaking tribes, who have probably immigrated from Arabia and Syria, and who occupy the deserts as far south as latitude 26° N.; secondly, the tribes who occupy the desert from Kosseir to Suakin, namely, the Hadendoa, Bisharin and the Ababda tribes, who speak a language of their own, and are probably the descendants of the Blemmyes, who occupied these parts in ancient times.

The population according to the census of 1897 was 9,734,405, compared with 6,813,919 in 1882, being an increase of 43.5 per cent. in 15 years. In the two following tables are given the numbers for Upper and Lower Egypt, as well as the number of foreigners resident in the country; while in others are given the division by sex and mode of life, taken from the census of 1897 :

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Egypt is divided into 6 governorships and 14 provinces, of which 6 belong to Lower Egypt and 8 to Upper Egypt.

The governorships are: Cairo, Alexandria, Damietta, Suez Canal, Suez, El-Arish.

Lower Egypt includes the provinces of: Behera, Gharbieh, Menufieh, Dakahlieh, Kaliubieh, Charkieh.

Upper Egypt: Gizeh, Beni Suef, Fayum, Minia, Assiut, Girgeh, Keneh, Assuan.

The following tables give the population of each governorship and province, with the number of persons per square mile in each :

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per cent. in 15 Years.

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646,013 864,206 588,644

1,352

736,708

791

Kaliubieh

352

271,391 371,465

1,055

Charkieh

905

471,139 749,130

826

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1 Without Arabs, who were included in the figures for 1897. Government and Administration.-The Central Government consists of the Khedive, together with a Council of six Ministers of State, under the presidency of a Prime Minister. To these is added the British Financial Adviser, who attends all meetings of the Council of Ministers, but has not a vote; on the other hand, no financial decision may be taken without his consent. The Ministries are those of the Interior, Finance, Public Works, Justice, War, and Public Instruction, and in each of these are prepared the drafts of decrees, which are then submitted to the Council of Ministers for approval, and on being signed by the Khedive become law. The control of the different parts of the country is carried on by governors of the governorships, and mudirs of the provinces, each of whom is under the Ministry of the Interior. The provinces are further divided into districts, each of which is under a mamur, who in his turn supervises and controls the omda, or head-man, of each village in his district.

Justice. In Egypt there are four judicial systems :-(1) the Mekhemehs or courts of the religious law, concerned

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mainly with questions affecting the personal status of Mahommedans; (2) the Mixed Courts, instituted in 1875, dealing with civil actions between persons of different nationalities, and to some extent with criminal offences of foreigners; (3) the Consular Courts, where foreigners accused of crime are tried; (4) the Native Courts, for civil actions between natives or crimes by natives. Native Courts, instituted 1884-89, with both foreign and native judges, now consist of 6 courts of first instance, an appeal court at Cairo, and 42 summary courts for cases of moderate importance. With special reference to these tribunals a British judicial adviser was appointed in 1891. A committee of judicial surveillance watches the working of the courts of first instance and the summary courts, and endeavours, by letters and discussions, to maintain purity and sound law. There is a ProcureurGénéral, who, with other duties, is entrusted with criminal prosecutions. His representatives are attached to each tribunal, and form the "parquet " under whose orders the police act in bringing criminals to justice. The police service, which has been subject to frequent modification, was in 1895 put under the orders of the Ministry of the Interior, to which a British adviser and British inspectors are attached. The provincial police is under the direction of the local authorities, the mudirs governors of provinces, and the mamurs or district officials; to the omdas or village headmen, who are responsible for the good order of the villages, a limited criminal jurisdiction has been entrusted.

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El-Azhar attracts students to the number of nearly 8000, of whom some 2000 are resident, from all parts of the Mahommedan world. Including this and the 3 training colleges, there are 26 higher or professional schools, with 486 teachers and 12,706 students. In 1897, of the sedentary Egyptian population over seven years of age, there could read and write in Lower Egypt 7 per cent., in Upper Egypt, 4.07 per cent., in all Egypt, 58 per cent.; of the foreign population over seven years of age in all Egypt, 74 per cent. could read and write.

Agriculture.-The total area of land, either cultivated, under reclamation, or which may later be reclaimed, is 6,250,000 acres, of which 4,690,000 pay full taxes, and 1,060,000 are in course of reclamation, paying a proportional tax. The remaining 500,000 acres are still waste land. The most important crops are those of cotton and sugar.

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The seasons for agriculture are—

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The crops cultivated in the different seasons are as follows:

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Summer

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1,040,000

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2,040,000

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80,000

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Education.-Under the Ministry of Public Instruction there is now a graduated system of teaching, commencing with the "kuttabs" or village schools attached to mosques, passing on to the primary and secondary schools, and finally the two technical schools, and the schools of agriculture, medicine, and law. Besides these there are nine missionary and other schools of all grades. In 1898 there were in all 9702 kuttabs, with 14,700 teachers for the 183,470 pupils who attend them; but only a few of these, at present about 100, are under Government inspection and receive the grant in aid to which it entitles them. In the rest the education given is of small value. There were 240 higher grade primary schools, and 28 secondary schools, besides 3 training colleges for teachers. The University of

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The land is everywhere subdivided into extremely small plots, each of which is often owned by the members of a family, each having a share. Out of 767,260 proprietors of land in 1897, 611,074 owned less than 5 acres. Cattle and farm animals, including horses and camels, number 1,669,000.

The only fisheries of importance are those of Lake Menzaleh, which produce a net revenue of about £E. 60,000 annually.

Commerce. Since 1875 the commerce has increased rapidly. Great Britain is the largest importer and exporter, and next come France, Turkey, Russia, Austria, and the United States, though the trade of Germany and Belgium is also rapidly increasing.

The exterior commerce, comprising imports and exports of all kinds of merchandise and of specie, is given at the following figures since 1880:

16,757,683

1 In 1897 the cotton tissues imported amounted to £E.1,798,600; and in 1900 to £E.1,987,095. In the cotton season of 1896-97 the quantity of raw cotton exported was 5,177,495 cantars, valued at £E.10,088,838; in 1897-98, 5,764,636 cantars, valued at £E.9,040,150; in 1898-99, 6,001,222 cantars, valued at £E.11,598,222; and in 1899-1900, 4,868,596 cantars, valued at £E.13,039,003.

The receipts from tobacco were: in 1896, £E.1,006,526; in 1897, £E. 1,044,780; in 1898, £E.1,080,669; in 1899, £E.1,068,497. Of the total imports in 1899 the value of £E. 9,945,165, and of the exports the value of £E.15,068,722, passed through the port of Alexandria.

Shipping and Navigation. -The following tables show the nationality and tonnage of vessels arriving and clearing at Alexandria. Great facilities have been afforded to steamers since the completion of the docks, wharves, and quays; and in order still further to facilitate navigation the Government have constructed a new pass, 300 feet wide, to enable vessels, which have often been delayed off the port during stormy weather, to make a direct run into harbour. The new pass, 30 feet deep, was opened to navigation in July 1894.

Arrivals and clearances of commercial vessels at Alexandria in five years :

Total

13,801,391

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Of late years lines of light agricultural railways have been opened by private companies in the Delta and in the Fayum. In connexion with these lines there are 164 miles of telegraphs and 310 miles of telephones.

Telegraphs and Posts.-The telegraphs belonging to the Egyptian Government were, at the end of 1900, of a total length of 2106 miles, the length of the wire being 9440 miles. The Government have given concessions to a telephone company for urban telephone lines. The Eastern Telegraph Company, also by concessions, have telegraph lines across Egypt from Alexandria vid Cairo to Suez, and from Port Said to Suez, connecting their cables to England and India. Number of telegrams, 2,994,332 in 1899, not including telegrams sent by the Eastern Telegraph Company. Receipts, £E.54,448; expenditure, £E. 44,000. In 1900 the number of telegrams was 3,288,662.

Country.

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America.

Greece

Rumania

Sweden.

Portugal

Argentine Republic

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There are 313 post offices in the towns of Egypt, 160 travelling. offices, and 414 localities where the rural post has been established. The Egyptian Post Office now transacts all the services which exist in the post offices of other countries forming the Postal Union. The following table gives the number of letters, post-cards,. newspapers, &c., despatched through the Egyptian Post Office in the year 1898 :

3503

In 1899 the British ships numbered 2310, with a tonnage of 9,046,031; and the German 387, with a tonnage of 1,492,657.

The number and gross tonnage of vessels that have passed through the Suez Canal, and the gross receipts of the company, were as follow during the twenty years after 1880:

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In 1899 these totals had arisen to: inland, 20,758,000; abroad, 3,903,700; total, 24,661,700. Receipts (1899), £E. 129,874; expenditure, £E.108,198.

Post-office orders and remittances through the post office (1898) numbered 563,800, and amounted to the value of £E.16,437,000; in 1899, post-office orders and remittances numbered 598,500, and amounted to a value of £E.17,437,000.

Thirty per cent. of the total foreign correspondence was with. Great Britain.

Money.-Egyptian money is minted at the Berlin Mint. The nominal value of the coinage (including re-coinage) from 1887 to. 1900 was:

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The number of passengers who went through the Canal in 1899 was 221,347 as against 219,671 in 1898, and 191,224 in 1897.

Canals. The canals, being designed specially for perennial or flood irrigation, are only partially used for communication, since the Nile serves for this purpose through the country. In the Delta, however, the large canals, Raya Behera, Raya Menufieh, Bahr Shebin, Mahmudieh Canal, Raya Tewfiqieh, and the Ismailieh Canal, are largely used to reach parts of the Delta which would otherwise be far from water transport.

Roads.-Until quite recently there were no roads laid out and maintained as such, except in the immediate neighbourhood of the large towns, and the only communication was by the footpaths across the cultivation. Now, however, agricultural roads are being constructed in most of the provinces, and 1268 miles are open, 324 miles having been constructed in Upper Egypt, and 944 in Lower Egypt, up to the end of 1899.

Railways-On 1st January 1901 there were in Egypt 1393 miles of railways belonging to and worked by the State, and 670 miles of light agricultural railways belonging to private companies (see below) in all, 2063 miles; 1403 miles being in the Delta, and 660 miles in Upper Egypt, exclusive of the military railway in the Sudan.

The following table shows since 1880 the length of line of the State railways, the number of passengers and the weight of goods carried, and the net receipts :

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Miles.

Tons.

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3,086,478 1,143,312

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4,696,286 1,721,492

798,418

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9,518,000 2,398,000

994,000

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9,854,000 2,498,000 1,033,000

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10,742,546 2,796,096 1,123,360 11,312,400 2,786,780 1393 11,284,284 3,055,897

1,114,033 1,161,636

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AUTHORITIES.-OFFICIAL. Administration: Correspondence respecting the Reorganization of Egypt. London, 1883.-Reports by Mr Villiers Stuart respecting Reorganization of Egypt. London, 1883 and 1895.-Despatch from Lord Dufferin forwarding the Decree constituting the New Political Institutions of Egypt. London, 1883.-Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms. London, 1885.-Reports by Sir H. D. Wolff on the Administration of Egypt. London, 1887.—Annual Reports by Lord Cromer on the Finances, Administration, and Condition of Egypt, and the Progress of Reforms. London.-Agriculture: Despatch from Sir Evelyn Baring enclosing Report on the Condition of the Agricultural Population in Egypt. London, 1888. -Notes on Egyptian Crops. Cairo, 1896.-Dictionnaire géograph ique de l'Egypte. Par Boinet Bey. Cairo, 1899. - Finance: Correspondence respecting the State Domains of Egypt. London, 1883.-Statement of the Revenue and Expenditure of Egypt, together with a List of the Egyptian Bonds and the Charges for their Services. London, 1885.-Reports on the Finances of Egypt. London, 18881895.-Convention between the Governments of Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, relative to the Finance of Egypt, signed at London, March 18, 1885. London, 1885.-Compte Général de l'Administration des Finances. Annual. Cairo.-Report (Official) on Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection for Egypt. 1 vol. and atlas. Cairo, 1894.-Report on the Nile and Country between Dongola, Suakin, Kassala, and Omdurman. 2nd ed. London, 1898. Report of Public Works Ministry (annual).—Report of the Judicial Adviser, 1898-99, 1900. Cairo. Statistical Tables, Ministry of Finance, 1900. Cairo.

NON-OFFICIAL.-AUBIN. Les Anglais aux Indes et en Egypte. Paris, 1899.-BOURGUET. La France et l'Angleterre en Egypte. Paris, 1897.-BUTCHER. The Story of the Church of Egypt. 2 vols. London. 1897.- BRODERICK (Miss) and SAYCE (Prof.). Handbook for Egypt (Murray's). 1 vol. London, 1900.-BROWN. Fayim and Lake Moeris. 1 vol. London, 1892.-History of the Barrage. Cairo, 1896.-H. BRUGSCH BEY. Histoire d'Egypte. 2nd ed. Leipzig, 1875. Eng. trans. 1888. 1 vol.-CAMERON.

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