St Paul's earlier years as a Christian could be made by the help of the Galatian Epistle, if we could be sure from what point and to what point its reckonings are made. The apostle tells us that on his conversion he retired from Damascus into Arabia, and thence returned to Damascus; then after three years (from his conversion) he went up to Jerusalem, but stayed only a fortnight, and went to the regions of Syria and Cilicia. Then after fourteen years (from his conversion? or from his last visit?) he went up to Jerusalem again to confer with the elder apostles. Now, if either of these visits to Jerusalem could be identified with any of the visits whose dates have been approximately settled in the chronology of A.D. 44-64, we should have a fixed point from which to argue back. Unfortunately, even less agreement exists on this head than on the question whether the fourteen years of the last-mentioned visit are to be reckoned from the conversion or from the previous visit. Most critics, indeed, are now agreed that the fourteen years are to be calculated from the conversion; and most of them still hold that the visit of Galatians ii. is the same as the council of Acts xv., partly, no doubt, on the ground that the latter visit was too important and decisive for St Paul to have omitted in giving even the most summary description of his relations with the twelve. This ground would, however, be cut away from their feet if it were possible to hold (with J. V. Bartlet, Apostolic Age, 1900, and V. Weber, Die Abfassung des Galaterbriefs vor dem Apostelkonzil, Ravensburg, 1900) that the epistle was actually written just before the council, i.e., in the winter of 48-49 [49-50]. In that case, of course, the two visits of Galatians i. and ii. would be those of Acts ix. 26 and xi. 30. The fourteen years reckoned back from the latter (c. A.D. 46) would bring us to A.D. 32-33 as the latest possible date for the conversion. With the older view, on the other hand, the fourteen years reckoned from the council in A.D. 49 [50] would allow us to bring down the conversion to A.D. 36. The new view clears away some manifest difficulties in the reconciliation of the Epistle and the Acts, and the early date for Galatians in relation to the other Pauline Epistles is not so improbable as it may seem; but the chronology still appears more satisfactory on the older view, which enables the conversion to be placed at least three years later than on the alternative theory. But it is clear that the last word has not been said, and that definite results for this period cannot yet be looked for. To sum up: an attempt has been made, it is hoped with some success, to provide a framework of history equipped with dates from the time of St Peter's arrest by Herod Agrippa I. at the Passover of A.D. 44 down to the martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul in the persecution of Nero, A.D. 64-65. For the previous period, on the other hand, from A.D. 29 to A.D. 44, it appeared impossible in our present state of knowledge to state conclusions other than in the most general form. AUTHORITIES.-The views stated in this article are in general (though with some modifications) the same as those which the present writer worked out with more fulness of detail in HASTINGS'S honoured in Austria as the inventor of the screw propeller. Population, 13,017. Chubut, a territory of the Argentine Republic, Patagonia, bounded on the N. by Rio Negro, on the S. by Santa Cruz, on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the W. by Chile. Its official area at the census of 1895 was 93,427 square miles; and in 1895 its population was 3748, as compared with 153 in 1869. The capital, Rawson, is situated 3 miles from the mouth of the Chubut. territory is divided into three departments. In 1895 there were 29,944 head of cattle, 47,306 sheep, 12,907 horses, 310 farms, and 12,355 acres planted in cereals. a The Until Chulalongkorn, Phra Paramindr Maha (1853-), king of Siam, eldest son of King Maha Mongkut, was born 21st September 1853. His full signature, used in all important state documents, consists of twenty-seven names, but it is by the first four that he is usually known, Educated in his childhood by English teachers, especially by Captain John Bush, he acquired a good knowledge of the English language and a due appreciation of Western culture. But his surroundings were purely Oriental, and as his boyhood was spent, according to custom, in a Buddhist monastery, he remained in sympathy with his people. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, 1st October 1868, and was crowned on 11th November following, when Europeans were present for the first time at such a ceremony. his majority in 1873 the government was carried on by regent, the young king retiring to a Buddhist monastery, and then making a long tour through India and the Dutch East Indies, an event hitherto unheard of among the potentates of Eastern Asia. But he had no sooner taken the reins of power than he gave evidence of his recognition of the importance of modern culture by abolishing slavery, which existed in Siam in its most extended form. He also did away with the custom of approaching the king on all fours. Still more important, in view of the numerous races and creeds included among his subjects, was the proclamation of liberty of conscience. This was followed by the erection of schools and hospitals, the construction of roads and railways, and the further development of the army and fleet which his father had commenced. To him Siam is indebted for its standard coinage, its postal and telegraph service, and for the police, sanitation, and electric-lighting of Bangkok. Two of the king's sons were sent to school in England, and in the summer of 1897 King Chulalongkorn paid a visit to Europe, arriving at Portsmouth in his yacht on the 29th July. On the 4th August he was received by Queen Victoria at Osborne. After a tour in Great Britain he proceeded to Berlin, Brussels, and The Hague, and arrived in Paris on 11th September, and after spending some weeks in the French capital, returned to Siam late in the year. Chumla. See SHUMLA. Chungking, a city in the province of Szechuen, Dictionary of the Bible, i. (1898) 403-424. Of older books should China, on the left bank of the Yangtse, at its point of be mentioned :-IDELER. Handbuch der mathematischen und tech-junction with the Kialing, in 29° 33′ N. lat. and 107° 2′ nischen Chronologie, 2 vols. (1825).—WIESELER. Chronologie des apostolischen Zeitalters (1848).-LEWIN'S Fasti Sacri (1865).The most important modern contributions are to be found in Prof. W. M. RAMSAY'S various works, and in HARNACK'S Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, i. 233-244. (c. H. T.) Chrudim, a town in Bohemia, Austria. It has an It has an important horse market, besides manufactures of sugar, spirits, beer, soda-water, and agricultural machinery. There are also steam corn-mills and saw-mills. Chrudim is the birthplace of Joseph Ressel (1793-1857), who is E. long. It is the commercial centre for the trade, not only of Szechuen, but of all south-western China. The one highway between Szechuen and the eastern provinces is the Yangtse river route, as owing to the mountainous nature of the intervening country land transit is almost impracticable. The import trade brought up by large junks from Ichang, and consisting of cotton cloth, yarn, metals, and foreign manufactures, centres here, and is distributed by a class of smaller vessels up the various rivers of the provinces. Native produce, such as yellow silk, white wax, hides, rhubarb, musk, and opium, is here collected and repacked for conveyance to Hankow, Shanghai, or other parts of the empire. The city was opened to foreign trade by convention with the British Government in 1891, with the proviso, however, that foreign steamers should not be at liberty to trade there until Chinese-owned steamers had succeeded in ascending the river. This restriction was abolished by the Japanese treaty of 1895, which declared Chungking open on the same terms as other ports. Since that date the problem of steam navigation on the section of the river between Ichang and Chungking has been occupying the attention of practical men. A small steamer has been navigated up the rapids, but it is a question how far steam navigation can be made a practical success. At present the trade is carried by native craft, which are hauled up against the strength of the current in the worst places by a line of trackers on the bank. Another difficulty is the great rise in the river during the summer months. At Chungking this rise is ordinarily 70 feet, and occasionally it is as much as 96 feet. The population of Chungking, including the city of Kiangpeh on the opposite bank of the Kialing river, is about 300,000. The foreign residents are very few. In 1898 the value of the trade passing through the maritime customs was H. taels 17,426,000 (£2,614,000), and in 1899 H. taels 25,792,000 (£3,868,000), of which imports, chiefly Manchester goods, counted for £1,961,000. Chuquisaca, a department of Bolivia, bounded on the N. by the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, on the S. by that of Tarija, on the E. by the Rio Paraguay, and on the W. by the department of Potosi. It has an area of 39,850 square miles, and had a population in 1893 of 286,710. Its capital is Sucre (26,000). The department is divided into four provinces, Yamparaez, Cinti, Tomina, and Azero, and has 29 schools with about 2000 pupils. Church, Richard William (1815-1890), Dean of St Paul's, was the son of John Dearman Church, an Irish merchant of Quaker ancestry. He was born at Lisbon, 25th April 1815, his early years being mostly spent at Florence. After his father's death in 1828 he was sent to a school of a pronounced evangelical type at Redlands, Bristol, and went in 1833 to Wadham College, Oxford, an evangelical college. He took first-class honours in 1836, much to his own surprise, and in 1838 was elected fellow of Oriel. One of his contemporaries, Richard Michell, commenting on this election, said: "There is such a moral beauty about Church that they could not help taking him.” He was appointed tutor of Oriel in 1839, and was ordained the same year. He was an intimate friend of Newman's at this period, and closely allied to the Tractarian party. In 1841 No. 90 of Tracts for the Times appeared, and Church resigned his tutorship. In 18441845 he was junior proctor, and in that capacity, in concert with his senior colleague, vetoed a proposal to censure Tract 90 publicly. In 1846 Church, with others, started the Guardian newspaper. In 1850 he became engaged to Miss H. F. Bennett, of a Somersetshire family, a niece of Bishop Moberly. After again holding the tutorship of Oriel, he accepted in 1852 the small living of Whatley in Somersetshire, near Frome, and was married in the following year. He was a diligent parish priest and a serious student, and contributed largely to current literature. In 1869 he refused a canonry at Worcester, but in 1871 he accepted, most reluctantly (calling it "a sacrifice en pure perte"), the deanery of St Paul's, to which he was nominated by Mr Gladstone. His task as dean was a complicated one. It was (1) the restoration of the cathedral, (2) the adjustment no more of the question of the cathedral revenues with the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, (3) the reorganization of a conservative cathedral staff with anomalous vested rights. He described the intention of his appointment to be "that St Paul's should waken up from its long slumber." The first year that he spent at St Paul's was, writes one of his friends, one of "misery" for a man who loved study and quiet and the country, and hated official pomp and financial business and ceremonious appearances. But he performed his difficult and uncongenial task with almost incredible success, and is said never to have made an enemy or a mistake. The dean was distinguished for uniting in a singular degree the virtues of austerity and sympathy. He was pre-eminently endowed with the faculty of judgment, characterized by Canon Scott Holland as the faculty of "high and fine and sane and robust decision." Though of unimpressive stature, he had a strong magnetic influence over all brought into contact with him, and though of a naturally gentle temperament, he never hesitated to express censure if he was convinced it was deserved. In the pulpit the voice of the dean was deliberately monotonous, and he employed no adventitious gesture. He may be described as a High Churchman, but of an essentially rational type, and with an enthusiasm for religious liberty that made it impossible for him to sympathize with any unbalanced or inconsiderate demands for deference to authority. He said of the Church of England that there was glorious church in Christendom than this inconsistent English Church." The dean often meditated resigning his office, though his reputation as an ecclesiastical statesman stood so high that he was regarded in 1882 as a possible successor to Archbishop Tait. But his health and mode of life made it out of the question. In 1888 his only son died; his own health declined, and he appeared for the last time in public at the funeral of Canon Liddon in 1890, dying on 9th December 1890, at Dover. He was buried at Whatley. The dean's chief published works are a Life of St Anselm (1870), the lives of Spenser (1879) and Bacon (1884) in Macmillan's "Men of Letters" series, an Essay on Dante (1878), The Oxford Movement (1891), together with many other volumes of essays and sermons. In these writings he exhibits a great grasp of principles, an accurate mastery of detail, and the same fusion of intelligent sympathy and dispassionate judgment that appeared in his handling of business. His style is lucid, and has the charm of austerity. He stated that he had never studied style per se, but that he had acquired it by the exercise of translation from classical languages; that he watched against the temptation of using unreal and fine words; that he employed care in his choice of verbs rather than in his use of adjectives, and that he fought against self-indulgence in writing just as he did in daily life. His sermons have the same quality of selfrestraint. His private letters are fresh and simple, and contain many unaffected epigrams; in writing of religious subjects he resolutely avoided dogmatism without ever sacrificing precision. The dean was a man of genius, whose moral stainlessness and instinctive fire were indicated rather than revealed by his writings. (A. C. BR.) Church Army.-The Church Army is an English religious organization, which was founded in 1882 by the Rev. Wilson Carlile, who banded together in an orderly army of "soldiers" and "officers" a few working men and women, whom he and others trained to act Church of England evangelists" among the outcasts and criminals of the Westminster slums. Previous experience had convinced him that wickedness and irreligion among the lowest classes of the people could best be overcome by new and aggressive action on the part as of the Church, and that this work was most effectively Churchill, Lord Randolph Henry done by zealous laymen and women of the same class Spencer (1849-1895), English statesman, third son as those whom it was desired to touch. "Evangelistic of John, seventh duke of Marlborough, by Frances, zeal with Church order" is the principle of the Church daughter of the third marquis of Londonderry, was born Army, and it is essentially a working men's and women's at Blenheim Palace, on 13th February 1849. His early mission to working people. As the work grew, a training education was conducted at home, and at Mr Tabor's institution for evangelists was started in Oxford, but soon preparatory school at Cheam. In January 1863 he went moved (1886) to 130 Edgware Road, London, W., where to Eton, where he remained till July 1865. He was the headquarters of the Army are established. Working not specially distinguished either in school work or games men are trained as evangelists, and working women as while at Eton; his contemporaries describe him as a mission nurses, and are supplied to the clergy whenever vivacious and rather unruly lad. In October 1867 he asked for. The men evangelists have to pass an examina- matriculated at Merton College, Oxford. He was fond tion by the archdeacon of Middlesex, and are then (since of amusement, and had carried to Oxford an early taste 1896) admitted by the bishop of London as "lay evan- for sport which he retained throughout life. But he gelists in the Church"; the mission nurses must likewise read with some industry, and obtained a second class in pass an examination by the diocesan inspector of schools. jurisprudence and modern history in 1870. In 1874 All Church Army workers (of whom there are over 1200 he was elected to Parliament in the Conservative interest of one kind and another) are entirely under the control of for Woodstock, defeating Mr George Brodrick, a fellow, the incumbent of the parish to which they are sent. They and afterwards Warden, of Merton College. His maiden never go to a parish unless invited, nor stay when asked speech, delivered in his first session, made no impression on to go by the parish priest. Officers and nurses are paid the House, nor did he become in any way conspicuous till a limited sum for their services by the vicar or by 1878. In that year he forced himself into public notice voluntary local contributions. Church Army mission and as the exponent of a species of independent Conservatism. colportage vans circulate throughout the country parishes, He directed a series of furious attacks against some of if desired, with itinerant evangelists, who hold simple the occupants of the front ministerial bench, and especially missions, without charge, and spread wholesome literature. that "old gang" who were distinguished rather for the Each van missioner has a clerical "adviser." Missions respectability of their private characters, and the unare also held in prisons and workhouses, at the invitation blemished purity of their Toryism, than for striking talent. of the authorities. In 1888 (before the similar work Mr Sclater Booth, president of the Local Government of the Salvation Army was inaugurated) the Church Board, was the especial object of his ire, and that minister's Army established labour homes in London and else- County Government Bill was fiercely denounced as the where, with the object of giving a "fresh start in life" "crowning dishonour to Tory principles," and the "supreme to the outcast and destitute. The Church Army homes violation of political honesty." The audacity of Lord deal with the outcast and destitute in a plain, simple, Randolph's attitude, and the vituperative fluency of his straightforward way. They demand that the persons invective, made him a parliamentary figure of some should show a desire for amendment; they subject them importance before the dissolution of the 1874 Parliament, to firm discipline; they give them hard work; they though he was not as yet taken quite seriously. In the give them decent clothes; and they strive to win them new Parliament of 1880 he speedily began to play a to a Christian life. The inmates earn their board and more notable rôle. With the assistance of his devoted lodging by piece-work, for which they are paid at the adherents, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff, Mr John Gorst, current trade rates, while by a gradually lessening scale and occasionally of Mr Arthur Balfour, and one or two of work and pay they are stimulated to obtain situa- others, he constituted himself at once the audacious tions for themselves and given time to seek for them. opponent of the Liberal administration and the unsparing There are about 103 homes in London and the provinces, critic of the Conservative front bench. The "fourth and 56 per cent. of the 26,000 cases helped in 1900 made party," as it was nicknamed, was effective at first not the successful beginning of an honest, self-supporting life. so much in damaging the Government as in awakenSelected and tested cases are enabled to emigrate. The ing the Opposition from the apathy which had fallen Church Army has lodging homes, an employment bureau, upon it after its defeat at the polls. Churchill roused cheap food depot, old clothes department, dispensary, and the Conservatives and gave them a fighting issue, by other social works, and an inebriates' reformatory under putting himself at the head of the resistance to Mr the Act of 1898. The whole of the work is done in Bradlaugh, the member for Northampton, who, though an loyal subordination to the diocesan and parochial organiza- avowed atheist or agnostic,. was prepared to take the tion of the Church of England. parliamentary oath. Sir Stafford Northcote, the Conservative leader in the Lower House, was forced to take a strong line on this difficult question by the energy of the fourth party, who in this case clearly expressed the views of the bulk of the Opposition. The long and acrimonious controversy over Mr Bradlaugh's seat, if it added little to the reputation of the English legislature, at least showed that Lord Randolph Churchill was a parliamentary champion. who added to his audacity much tactical skill and shrewdness. He continued to play a conspicuous part throughout the Parliament of 1880-85, dealing his blows with almost equal vigour at Mr Gladstone and at the Conservative front bench, some of whose members, and particularly Sir Richard Cross and Mr W. H. Smith, he assailed with extreme virulence. From the beginning of the Egyptian imbroglio Lord Randolph was emphatically opposed to almost every step taken by the Government. He declared that the suppression of Arabi Pasha's rebellion S. III. 12 (M. B. S.) Churchill, MISSINNIPPI, or ENGLISH, a river of Athabasca and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in La Loche-a small lake in 56° 30′ N. lat. and 109° 30′ W. long., at an altitude of 1577 feet above the sea-and flows in a north-easterly direction to Hudson Bay, passing through a number of lake expansions. Its principal tributaries are the Beaver-350 miles long, Sandy, Montreal, Reindeer, and Little Churchill rivers. Between Frog and Methy portages-480 miles-it formed part of the old voyageur route to the Peace, Athabasca, and Mackenzie. Its largest affluent, Reindeer river, discharges the waters of Reindeer lake (with an area of 2490 square miles and 1150 feet above the sea) and Wollaston lake (altitude, 1300 feet). The Churchill is 925 miles long. Port Churchill, at its mouth, is the best harbour in the southern portion of Hudson Bay. was an error, and the restoration of the Khedive's authority League, which owed its origin to the happy inspiration of one of his own "fourth party" colleagues. In 1884 the struggle between stationary and progressive Toryism came to a head, and terminated in favour of the latter. At the conference of the Central Union of Conservative Associations, Lord Randolph was nominated chairman, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of the parliamentary leaders of the party. The split was averted by Lord Randolph's voluntary resignation; but the episode had confirmed his title to a leading place in the Tory ranks. It was further strengthened by the prominent part he played in the events immediately preceding the fall of the Liberal Government in 1885; and when Mr Childers's budget resolutions were defeated by the Conservatives, aided by about half the Parnellites, Lord Randolph Churchill's admirers were justified in proclaiming him to have been the "organizer of victory." His services were, at any rate, far too important to be refused recognition; and in Lord Salisbury's Cabinet of 1885 he was appointed to no less an office than that of secretary of state for India. During the few months of his tenure of this great post the young freelance of Tory democracy surprised the permanent officials and his own friends by the assiduity with which he attended to his departmental duties and the rapidity with which he mastered the complicated questions of Indian administration. In the autumn election of 1885 he contested Central Birmingham against Mr Bright, and though defeated here, was at the same time returned by a very large majority for South Paddington. In the contest which arose over Mr Gladstone's Home Rule scheme, both in and out of Parliament, Lord Randolph again bore a conspicuous part, and in the electioneering campaign his activity was only second to that of some of the Liberal Unionists, the marquis of Hartington, Mr Goschen, and Mr Chamberlain. He was now the recognized Conservative champion in the Lower Chamber, and when the second Salisbury administration was formed after the general election of 1886 he became chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. His management of the House was on the whole successful, and was marked by tact, discretion, and temper. But he had never really reconciled himself with some of his colleagues, and there was a good deal of friction in his relations with them, which ended with his sudden resignation on 20th December 1886. Various motives influenced him in taking this surprising step; but the only ostensible cause was that put forward in his letter to Lord Salisbury, which was read in the House of Commons on 27th January. In this document he stated that his resignation than oppose, reforms of a popular character, and to chal- was due to his inability, as chancellor of the exchequer, lenge the claims of the Liberals to pose as the champions to concur in the demands made on the treasury by the of the masses. His views were to a large extent accepted ministers at the head of the naval and military establishby the official Conservative leaders in the treatment of ments. It was commonly supposed that he expected his the Gladstonian Franchise Bill of 1884. Lord Randolph resignation to be followed by the unconditional surrender insisted that the principle of the Bill should be accepted of the Cabinet, and his restoration to office on his own by the Opposition, and that resistance should be terms. The sequel, however, was entirely different. The focussed upon the refusal of the Government to combine Cabinet was reconstructed with Mr Goschen as chancellor with it a scheme of redistribution. The prominent, and of the exchequer, and Lord Randolph's own career as on the whole judicious and successful, part he played in a Conservative chief was practically closed. the debates on these questions, still further increased his tinued, for some years longer, to take a considerable influence with the rank and file of the Conservatives in the share in the proceedings of Parliament, giving a general, constituencies. At the same time he was actively spread- though decidedly independent, support to the Unionist ing the gospel of democratic Toryism in a series of platform administration. On the Irish question he was a very campaigns. In 1883 and 1884 he invaded the Radical candid critic of Mr Balfour's measures, and one of his stronghold of Birmingham itself, and in the latter year later speeches, which recalled the acrimonious violence took part in a Conservative garden party at Aston Manor, of his earlier period, was that which he delivered in 1890 at which his opponents paid him the compliment of raising on the report of the Parnell Commission. He also fulfilled a serious riot. He gave constant attention to the party the promise made on his resignation by occasionally organization, which had fallen into considerable disorder advocating the principles of economy and retrenchment after 1880, and was an active promoter of the Primrose, in the debates on the naval and military estimates. LORD RANDOLPH CHURCHILL.. (From a photograph by Elliot & Fry, London.) He con between him and Garibaldi. Placed in command of the In April 1889, on the death of Mr Bright, he was asked | Garibaldi disputė, royal mediation alone preventing a duel to come forward as a candidate for the vacant seat in Birmingham, and the result was a rather angry controversy with Mr Chamberlain, terminating in the so-called "Birmingham compact" for the division of representation of the Midland capital between Liberal Unionists and Conservatives. But his health, was already precarious, and this, combined with the anomaly of his position, induced him to relax his devotion to Parliament during the later years of the Salisbury administration. He bestowed much attention on society, travel, and sport. He was an ardent supporter of the turf, and in 1889 he won the Oaks with a mare named the Abbesse de Jouarre. In 1891 he went to South Africa, in search both of health and relaxation. He travelled for some months through Cape Colony, the Transvaal, and Rhodesia, making notes on the politics and economics of the countries, shooting lions, and recording his impressions in letters to a London newspaper, which were afterwards republished under the title of Men, Mines, and Animals in South Africa. He returned with renewed energy, and in the general election of 1892 once more flung himself, with his old vigour, into the strife of parties. His seat at South Paddington was uncontested; but he was active on the platform, and when Parliament met he returned to the Opposition front bench, and again took a leading part in debate, attacking Mr Gladstone's second Home Rule Bill with especial energy. But it was soon apparent that his powers were undermined by the inroads of disease. As the session of 1893 wore on his speeches lost their old effectiveness, and in 1894 he was listened to not so much with interest as with pity. His last speech in the House was delivered in the debate on Uganda in June 1894, and was a painful failure. He was, in fact, dying of general paralysis. A journey round the world was undertaken as a forlorn hope. Lord Randolph started in the autumn of 1894, accompanied by his wife, but the malady made so much progress that he was brought back in haste from Cairo. He reached England shortly before Christmas, and died at 50 Grosvenor Square on 24th January 1895. Lord Randolph Churchill married, in January 1874, Jennie, daughter of Mr Leonard Jerome of New York, U.S.A., who survived him. He left two sons, Winston and John, the former of whom, after serving for some time in the 4th Hussars and acting as a special correspondent in the South African war, was elected member of Parliament for Oldham in October 1900. The earlier speeches of Lord Randolph Churchill have been edited, with an introduction and notes, by Louis Jennings; two vols., London, 1889. See also T. H. S. ESCOTT, Randolph Spencer Churchill, 1895; and H. W. Lucy, Diary of Two Parliaments, 1892. (S. J. L.) Chust, a town of Russian Turkestan, province of Fergana, district of Namangan, 110 miles north-east of Kokan, on Narym river. Population, 13,686. Cialdini, Enrico (1811-1892), Italian soldier and politician, was born at Castelvetro, in Modena, Italy, 10th August 1811. In 1831 he took part in the insurrection at Modena, fleeing afterwards to Paris, whence he proceeded to Spain to fight against the Carlists. Returning to Italy in 1848, he commanded a regiment at the battle of Novara. In 1859 he organized the Alpine Brigade, fought at Palestro at the head of the 4th Division, and in the following year invaded the Marches, won the battle of Castelfidardo, took Ancona, and subsequently directed the siege of Gaeta. For these services he was created duke of Gaeta by the king, and was assigned a pension of 10,000 lire by Parliament. In 1861 his intervention envenomed the Cavour Cider. The recent development of the cider-making industry, coupled with certain changes in the mode of manufacture, render it necessary to supplement the two articles on CIDER and PERRY in the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica with additional information. Cider and perry are liquors containing from as little as 2 per cent. of alcohol to 7 or 8 per cent., seldom more, and rarely as much, produced by the vinous fermentation of the expressed juice of apples and pears; but cider and perry of prime quality can only be obtained from vintage fruit, that is, apples and pears grown for the purpose and unsuited for the most part for table use. A few table apples make good cider, but the best perry is only to be procured from pears too harsh and astringent for consumption in any other form. The making of perry is in England confined, in the main, to the counties of Hereford, Worcester, and Gloucester. These three counties, together with Somerset and Devon, constitute, too, the principal cider-making district of the country; but the industry, which was once more widely spread, still survives in Norfolk, and has lately been revived in Kent, though, in both these counties, much of the fruit used in cider-making is imported from the west country and some from the Continent. Speaking generally, the cider of Herefordshire is distinguished for its lightness and briskness, that of Somerset for its strength, and that of Devonshire for its lusciousness. Inasmuch as English orchards are crowded with innumerable varieties of cider apples, many of them worthless, a committee composed of members of the Herefordshire Fruit-Growers' Association and of the Fruit and Chrysanthemum Society was appointed in 1899 to make a selection of vintage apples and pears best suited to Herefordshire and the districts adjoining. The following is the list drawn up by the committee : Apples.-Old Foxwhelp, Cherry Pearmain, Cowarne Red, Dymock Red, Eggleton Styre, Kingston Black or Black Taunton, Skyrme's Kernel, Spreading Redstreak, Carrion apple, Cherry Norman, Cummy Norman, Royal Wilding, Handsome Norman, Strawberry Norman, White Bache or Norman, Broad-leaved Norman, Argile Grise, Bramtôt, De Boutville, Fréquin Audièvre, Medaille d'Or, the last five being French sorts introduced from Normandy about twenty years ago, and now established in the orchards of Herefordshire. |