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servants (24 and 25 Vict. c. 100, § 26; 38 and 39 Vict. | c. 86, § 6); and by the Poor Law Amendment Act, 1868, parents were rendered summarily punishable who wilfully neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid, or lodging for their children under 14 in their custody, whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be seriously injured. This enactment made no express exception in favour of parents who had not sufficient means to do their duty without resort to the poor law, and was construed as imposing criminal liability on parents whose peculiar religious tenets caused them advisedly to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick child.

But the chief gain in the direction of adequate protection of children prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the subject than in the institution of an effective system of police, whereby it became possible to discover and repress cruelty punishable under the ordinary law. It is quite inaccurate to say that children had very few rights in England, or that animals were better protected. But before the constitution of the present police force, and in the absence of any proper system of public prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless cases of neglect and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as nobody's business. In 1889 a special statute was passed to prevent cruelty to children, which was superseded in 1894 by the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, which now regulates the matter and specifically deals with the offence of "cruelty" to children. This offence can only be committed by a person over 16 in respect of a child under 16 of whom he has "custody," "charge," or "care." The Act presumes that a child is in the custody of its parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent, or of its guardians; that it is in the charge of a person to whom the parent has committed such charge (e.g., a schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a person who has actual possession or control of it. Cruelty is defined as consisting in assault, ill-treatment (falling short of actual assault), neglect, or abandonment of the child in a manner likely to cause unnecessary suffering or injury to health, including injury to or loss of sight, hearing, or limb, or any organ of the body or any mental derangement; and the act or omission must be wilful, i.e., deliberate and intentional, and not merely accidental or inadvertent. Though medical aid is not specified, it has been decided that for a member of the sect of Peculiar People not to call in a doctor may amount to an offence under the Act. The offence may be punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender may be sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was pecuniarily interested in the death of the child, e.g., by having taken out one of these

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pornicious policies permitted under the Friendly Societies Acts. By § 23 (2) parents may be guilty of cruelty by neglect if they fail to apply for poor relief for their children in the event of their inability otherwise to maintain them.

This enactment overlaps the common law and the statutes already mentioned. Its real efficacy lies in the main in the provisions which facilitate the taking of evidence of young children, in permitting boards of guardians to prosecute at the expense of the rates, and in permitting a constable on arresting the offender to take the child away from the accused, and the court of trial on conviction to transfer the custody of the child from the offender to some fit and willing person. The Act has been utilized with great zeal and on the whole with much discretion by various philanthropic societies, whose members make it their business to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all classes in society.

Besides the provisions above indicated directly dealing with cruelty to children, there was during Queen Victoria's reign much legislation in the interests of children, requiring their parents to procure their elementary education, forbidding the employment of children under 10 in business or trade for gain (except in the case of children licensed by justices to perform in public), and restricting the employment of children of school age unless they have attained a certain standard of proficiency, which in practice prevents children under 13 from being put to work (the Elementary Education Act, 1876). The labour of boys under 12 underground in mines is forbidden. And where children may legally be employed in factories or shops limitations are imposed with respect to their hours of labour and other matters. The special legislation against the employment of children in agricultural gangs and in sweeping chimneys is virtually obsolete, owing to changes in the conditions of these occupations and the subsequent enactments above indicated.

The Act of 1894 also prohibits custodians, &c., of children from taking them, or letting them be, in the street to beg or receive alms, or to sing, play, perform, or sell in the street or in public-houses between 9 P.M. and 6 a.m. These provisions apply to boys under 14 and girls under 16. There are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under 11 to perform, &c., for gain in public-houses or places of public amusement at any hour without a license from a justice, which is granted only as to children over 7 and under stringent conditions; (2) on allowing children under 16 to be trained as acrobats or for any dangerous performance except by their parents or legal guardians. (W. F. C.)

CHILE.

Geography and Statistics.-Chile, or Chili, extends along the S.W. coast of South America, from the Peruvian frontier at 17° 57′ S. lat. to Cape Horn at 55° 59′ S. lat.; total area about 266,460 square miles. After controversies extending over many years, the boundaries have been within recent years settled by treaties Boundaries. concluded with Bolivia, Peru, and the Argentine Republic. Of Northern Chile, the portion extending from 23° S. lat. to the river Loa, comprising the province of Antofagasta, formerly belonged to Bolivia; it was occupied by Chile in accordance with the truce agreement of 4th April 1884, and was definitely ceded by Bolivia by treaty of 1st May 1896. The province of Tarapacá, extending from the river Loa northwards to the river Camarones, 19° 12′ S. lat., was formerly Peruvian. It

was occupied by Chile in 1880, and was definitely relinquished by Peru by agreement of 28th March 1884. Between the Camarones and the Sama rivers lies the province of Tacna, consisting of the departments of Tacna and Arica. Under the treaty of 20th October 1883 this province was to be held by Chile for ten years, after which a popular vote was to decide whether it should be definitely incorporated with Chile or should revert to Peru, the country retaining it to pay a sum of 10,000,000 pesos to the other. In consequence of disagreement as to the manner of voting and the persons entitled to vote, no action was taken at the end of the ten years' term; and a convention, signed at Santiago on 16th April 1898, for the taking of the plebiscite was in 1900 rejected by the Chilian Congress.

The coast of Chile, especially towards the south, is broken by islands. Opposite the province of Atacama is Easter or Pascua Island; facing the coast of Concepcion is the small island of Quirquina; farther south are Santa Maria and Mocha; more important are the Chiloé archipelago, consisting of about 96 islands, the Chonos archipelago with over 1000 islands, and, in the extreme south, the archipelago of which the most important islands are Tierra del Fuego, Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence, Dawson, and Diego Ramirez islands. The island of Juan Fernandez is 390 miles west of Valparaiso. Population. The population of Chile, according to census enumerations from 1875 to 1895, is given as follows:

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Increase.

256,748

451,349

184,825

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157,566 41.53 85,277 33.80 415,636 79'60 220,756 13.30 113,165 18.18 160,898 12.50 59,713 2.10 44,085 0.92 89,751 4.65 24,160 2.78

266,458 2,527,320 2,712,145 10.18

It is estimated that in the enumeration of 1895, 10 per cent. of the population, or about 271,214, were omitted. The total population at the date of the census would therefore be 2,983,359. The population on 31st December 1898 was officially estimated at 3,082,178. The foreign population of Chile in 1885 was returned at 65,000 ; in 1895 at 72,812. Of the number in 1895, 42, 105 were European, 29,687 were American, 1020 were from Asiatic and other countries. Of the Europeans 8269 were Spanish, 7809 were French, 7587 Italian, 7049 German, 6241 British, 1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian. The marriages, births, and deaths registered in the 277 registration circumscriptions in 1897 and 1898 were:

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The civil marriage law of 10th January 1884 and the civil registration law of 17th July 1884 came into force on 1st January 1885. The cost of registration is borne by the State. The registration of deaths is required before burial, so that it is fairly trustworthy; but the registration both of marriages and births is stated to be frequently eluded. The death-rate is high. In the cities of Santiago and Valparaiso it is stated to be little under 60 per 1000, the mortality among children being very great. With a view to remedy this evil an Act was passed in February 1896 making drainage compulsory in the centres of population. Immigration goes on under the care of colonization agencies, which in 1896 introduced 988 agricultural and 1114 industrial immigrants from Europe. In 1897 the total number introduced was 807. In 1898 the Govern

ment voted the sum of £46,300 to the assistance of immigration, and in 1899 £38,680 to the same purpose. The result, however, proved so unsatisfactory that the Government have discontinued their direct subsidies for the encouragement of immigration. The agricultural portion of Chile is in the south, where rain is almost incessant, the forest growth dense, and the labour of clearing a few wanting, and there is no adequate protection for life and property acres out of all proportion to the profits. Moreover, roads are against outlaws and other dangerous characters. The Government has therefore turned its attention to the improvement of existing settlements, and for this purpose a sum of money is provided in the budget of 1900. The enumerated population in 1895 consisted of 1,240,353 inhabitants of towns and 1,471,792 of rural districts. The principal cities and towns, with the census population of 1895 and the estimated population on 31st December 1898, are :—

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Constitu

The political constitution of 1833 is, with some amendments, in force. The principal amendments were made by laws of 9th August 1888, 11th August 1890, 20th August 1890, 22nd December tion. 1891, 7th July 1892. The Chamber of Deputies consists of members elected for three years directly by the registered electors of each department-one deputy for 30,000 inhabitants. The republic is divided into electoral districts and subdivided into sections of 150 inscriptions, the registers of which are kept by the municipal authorities. On the basis of the census returns of 1885, the number of deputies was fixed at ninety-four. Senators are similarly elected, but for six years, and they are chosen, not in departments, but in the provinces-one senator for every three deputies. For the Chamber of Deputies and for the Senate there are triennial elections, the Chamber being renewed entirely and the Senate to the extent of one-half every three years. For the Chamber and for the Senate the system of voting is cumulative. Senators and deputies are unpaid.

At the head of the executive power is the President of the Republic, chosen for five years indirectly by the nation, the electors being specially chosen by the provinces-three electors for each deputy. The election of the president takes place on 25th June of the last year of the presidential term, and the new president is inaugurated on 18th September following.

Local Government. -The Republic is divided into provinces, departments, and 282 municipal districts. Each municipal district has, by law of 22nd December 1891, a municipality or council of at least nine members chosen by popular election. At the sessions of the municipalities or councils the intendentes, governors, or sub-governors of the national government preside. In the municipal districts assemblies of electors are held under the presidency of the first mayor for the election of councillors, the sanctioning of the local budget or of local loans (which are limited in amount), and for other business. The total municipal revenues in 1896 amounted to 8,767,780 pesos, and the expenditure to 9,010,730 pesos. If the peso is taken at 1s. 6d., the revenues were equivalent to £657,580 and the expenditure to £675,800 sterling, The principal police force, the fiscal police, is maintained and commanded by the national government, but the municipal force is still under the control of the municipalities. In Tacna municipal administration is carried on conjointly by the political heads of the departments and by councils (juntas) of three members appointed for three years by the president of the republic. There is a similar system in the territory of Magallanes.

Education.-Public education is free (at the cost of the State), but not compulsory. It is directed by a council, at the head of which is the minister of public instruction. Higher and secondary education are given in the university and the national institute at Santiago, and in the provincial colleges or liccos. In 1899 there were 573 university degrees and diplomas conferred. Besides the State university, there is a Catholic university giving instruction

in theology, in law, and in mathematical and physical science. In 1899 the national institute had 1168 pupils. There are in Chile six clerical seminaries which receive a small government subvention. Three colleges for girls are maintained by the State, and many schools for girls receive subventions. There are, besides, normal, agricultural, technical, and commercial schools. The estimates for 1898 provided a sum of £150,000 for higher and secondary education. In 1899 there were in Chile 1403 public primary schools (435 for boys, 276 for girls, and 692 mixed), with 2299 teachers (748 male and 1551 female); the enrolled pupils numbered 115,535 (56,278 boys and 59,257 girls), and the average attendance 70,607 (33,746 boys and 36,861 girls). The cost of primary instruction was £156,000. There were also, in 1899, 445 private elementary schools (148 for boys, 50 for girls, and 247 mixed) with 26,294 enrolled pupils (15,885 boys and 10,409 girls). Private schools devoted solely to popular education are assisted by the State. The German colonies of Valdivia and Llanquihué have excellent schools. Crime. The penal establishments of Chile, 87 in number (including the two penitentiaries at Santiago and Talca), have been under direct government administration since 1891. On 1st January 1900 they contained 7051 criminals (6219 men and 832 women). The total number of prisoners they received during the year 1899 was 34,429, of whom 28,037 were male and 6392 female. In 1899, 432 boys were sent to the two correctional schools. Charity.-In Chile there are numerous charitable institutions supported by endowments, legacies, donations, subscriptions, and government contributions. In 1897 State assistance was given to 79 hospitals to the amount of £65,000; to two lunatic asylums to the amount of £18,400; and to other institutions, £17,015. In Santiago in 1898 over £15,000 was spent in enlarging and improving the hospitals, but in many of the provinces the distress and poverty are very great, and the hospital accommodation is insufficient.

Finance. The ordinary revenue and expenditure of Chile in 1892 and in the last four years were as follows (1 peso=18d.):

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The export duties are levied mainly on nitrate and iodine. Recent additions to the external debt of Chile have been incurred mainly for the satisfaction of claims arising out of the occupation of Peru, for railway construction, and other public works, and for the payment of floating and municipal debts. The internal debt consists of municipal debts, annuities (censos"), a 3 per cent. debt, and the debt arising from the issue of notes under the law of 7th July 1898, amounting to 46,691,400 pesos. There is due also a balance on treasury bills discounted in London. The debt outstanding on 31st December 1899, and the debt charge were as follows:

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State lands, £2,500,000; Talcahuano dock, £450,000; movable property, £80,000-total, £18,180,000.

The value of the real property held in 1896 by corporations was returned at 55,875,021 pesos (£4,190, 630), and that held by private persons at 1,436,125,688 pesos (£107,709,430) — total, 1,492,000,709 pesos (£111,900,060). The mortgages on private estates amounted to 200,236,400 pesos (£15,018,730). In 1899, however, the price of land had fallen 30 or 40 per cent., so that the value of real estate in private ownership did not exceed 950,000,000 pesos (£71,250,000), while the mortgages had risen to 215,000,000 pesos (at par £16,125,000). The total value of real property (exclusive government property) in 1899 may be put at about 1,000,000,000 pesos (£75,000,000 at par, or about £63,000,000 at the current rate of exchange).

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R.Sund

Arica Camerones

R.

Iquique

20

R. Loa

Antofagasta

La Serena

30

Tarapaca

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Antofagasta

Jujuy

Atacama

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Defence. The army of Chile, according to the law of 24th November 1897, must not exceed 9000 men. The strength for 1900 was fixed at 5885, with 913 officers. This force is organized in 1 regiment (2 battalions) of coast artillery, 5 regiments of field artillery, 10 of infantry, 8 of cavalry, 1 corps of engineers (4 companies), 2 corps of pensioners, and the whole is distributed among the four military zones into which Chile is divided. For the last ten years German drill instructors have been employed; Mauser and Mannlicher rifles are used, and the batteries have Krupp guns of the newest type. By law of 12th February 1896 the National Guard consists of three branches - the active, comprising all citizens of 20 and 21 years of age; the passive, all over 21 years of age who have completed their service in the active; the sedentary, all from 30 to 40 years of age who are married. The total number in the National Guard is about 513,000, with 2400 officers. The Territorial Guard, numbering 19,862, organized in 1896 to defend the passes of the Andes, was disbanded in 1898. In Chile there are three military schools, a military museum, a cartridge factory, and other military establishments. The navy in 1899 consisted of 3 battleships, launched respectively in 1890, 1874, and 1865; 2 armoured cruisers; 2 second-class and 2 third-class cruisers; 11 gunvessels and gunboats 4 destroyers, launched at Birkenhead in 1896, and all of a speed of more than 30 knots; 15 firstclass and 4 second-class torpedo- B.V.D&O.J.R.H boats. There are also training and school ships, and craft for

special service. In order to re

40

Chiloe

T Talca

M. Maule

L. Linares

N. Nuble

C. Concepcion

B. Biobío

Ma. Malleco
Ar. Arauco

Ca. Cautini

Vald. Valdivia LI. Llanquihue

Chonos

Arch.

Desolation

St.Ines 10 Magellan, Str.

Railways English Miles 100 200

40

50

Tierra del Fuego

Cape Horn Diego Ramirez,Is i Oxford 1901

SKETCH MAP OF CHILE.

duce expenditure, several vessels were laid up in 1899. In 1898 the navy had 368 commissioned and staff officers and 3794 warrant officers and men. Naval schools were founded in 1893. A number of steamers of the South American Steamboat Company are subventioned and held at the disposal of the Government for transport service.

Agriculture. The region most favourable for agriculture extends from Santiago to Concepcion, where large quantities of wheat are grown, and barley, maize, oats, and rye are also cultivated. Many industrial plants prosper in this region, notably the sugar beet, flax, colza, sorghum, hops, and tobacco. The grape thrives well, and nearly 15,000 acres are planted with vines. South of the agricultural region the climate is rainy, but the forest growth is luxuriant, and a great timber traffic is carried on. Stock-raising has considerable importance in Chile, more especially the rearing of sheep, vicuña, and hogs. The country is estimated to contain S. III. — 2

about 3 million head of cattle and 3 million sheep, but there are no official statistics on the subject. About 1 millions of the population are dependent on agriculture, and the country produces annually some 28 million bushels of wheat and 8 million bushels of other cereals, apart from fruits, vegetables, &c. Bee-keeping has some importance in the south, the annual export of honey being about 2800 tons.

Nitrate Production.-By the acquisition of the provinces of Tarapacá and Antofagasta (1880-84) and the occupation of the province of Tacna, Chile obtained a vast addition to its mineral resources. The guano deposits lying on the coast of this region are nearly exhausted, but farther inland lies the nitrate zone, stretching, with a breadth of about three miles, from the Azapa valley in the province of Tacna, through the province of Tarapacá and into the desert of Atacamá, a total length of about 250 miles. In the provinces of Tarapacá and Antofagasta there are many refineries for purifying the crude nitrate or caliche, the centre of the industry being at Iquique.

The weight (metric tons) and value of nitrate of soda exported from 1879 onwards were as follows:

Value.

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Years. Tons. Value. 1879 59,348 £751,690 1889 921,380 £5,771,220 1880 226,090 2,290,710 1890 1,026,290. 5,950,470 1881 358,100 3,624,530 1891 891,720 5,174,500 1882 489,340 4,543,900 1892 797,820 5,030,630 6,208,650

1883

584,790

5,073,560

1893

947,020

1884

559,640 3,984, 140

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3,191,040

1886

452,780 3,044,750

1887

1,081,330 1895 1,220,420 7,208,680 1896 1,111,750 712,760 4,456,070 1897 1,057,630 1888 784,240 5,361,730 1898 1,294,220

1894

7,018,680

6,955,850

5,928,290 6,800,650

The output for export in 1899 was estimated at 1,360,000 tons, worth about £9,375,000 at the prices quoted in October.

From the saline waters iodine is extracted in large quantities. The quantity of iodine exported in 1897 was 535,430 fb, and in 1898, 517,460 lb.

Other Minerals.-Copper is found in abundance, notably in the provinces of Taracapá, Antofagasta, Atacamá, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Santiago, and Maule. In 1876 the quantity of bar copper exported reached 41,766 tons, and in 1878,40,894 tons; but since then the output and the exportation have declined. During the eight years 1891-98 the export was as follows:

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Of the imports in 1898, 71 per cent. in value, and of the exports 56 per cent. in value were subject to duty. The import duties amounted to £1,602,770; the export duties to £3,106,100. The most important article of export is nitrate, the value of the shipments of which amounted in 1886 to £3,044,760; in 1891, to £5,122,900; in 1896, to £6,955,900; in 1897, to £5,943,700; in 1898, to £6,800, 650. The value of the iodine exported in 1891 was £671,342; in 1896, £326,790; in 1897, £384,647; in 1898, to £270,720. Of metals, the most important exports are copper in bars, amounting in 1886 to £1,296,183; in 1891, to £771,600; in 1896, to £815,100; in 1897, to £893,780; in 1898, to £1,248,396. Bar silver was exported in 1886 to the value of £1,039,410; in 1891, £713,670; in 1896, £662,300; in 1897, £598,680; in 1898, to £523,986. Of agricultural produce the chief export is wheat, amounting in 1886 to the value of £773,360; in 1891, to £1,146,290; in 1896, to £653,450; in 1897, to £411,400; in 1898, to £575,234. The chief imports and exports in 1899 were as follows (conversion for both being made at 18d. to the peso):

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Copper is exported in other forms in small quantities. In 1898, 3078 tons of copper ingots, 419 tons of copper and silver ingots, and 20,301 tons of copper ore were sent abroad. The production of copper in 1899 was estimated at 25,000 tons.

Gold and silver mining are carried on in various parts of Chile. Gold mining prospers at Taltal in the north, at several places in the central region, in the Magallanes territory, and in Tierra del Fuego. Rich alluvial deposits have been found at Lonquimai, in the province of Temuco, and the future output will probably show a large increase. The exact amount of silver produced is not easily ascertained, as the official statement includes a quantity of Bolivian silver passing through Chilian ports as if it were Chilian. The export of bar gold and silver from 1893 to 1898 was

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The value of gold exported in 1897 was £160,000, and of silver £540,000. Iron, manganese, lead, cobalt, nickel, zinc, bismuth are abundant in various provinces. The city of Coronel is the centre of the coal industry; in 1898 the coal output amounted to 282,600 tons.

The most important industries are connected with the mineral output. There are about 55 nitrate refineries in the nitrate district, the chief being at Lagunas; and there are works for the extraction of iodine. There are silver works at Playa Blanca; copper works at Lota, in Concepcion, and other places; sulphur works at Valparaiso, Santiago, and Concepcion. In Valdivia there are iron-foundries for the manufacture of saws and other tools for forest work. Other industries are distilling from native produce, brewing, flour-milling, and sugar-refining.

Drugs, &c.

Of the value of imports in 1899, 41 per cent. were from Great Britain, 28 per cent. from Germany, 8 per cent. from the United States. Of the exports, 67 per cent. in value went to Great Britain, 13 per cent. to Germany, 5 per cent. to France, 4 per cent. to the United States. Of the imports in 1899, 63 per cent. in value was landed at Valparaiso, 12 per cent. at Talcahuano, 10 per cent. at Iquique. Of the exports in 1899, 43 per cent. in value was shipped from Iquique, 11 per cent. from Valparaiso, 9 per cent. from Pisagua. During 1899 trade was hampered by the depreciation of the currency and the fluctuation in the exchange value of the peso consequent on the suspension of the conversion law.

Shipping. In 1898, 7691 vessels of a total tonnage of 10,152, 443 entered, and 7671 of 10,032,661 tons cleared. Of the vessels entered, 1923 of 3,167,579 tons, and of those cleared, 1831 of 2,944,209 tons were engaged in foreign trade. British vessels numbering 1004, with a total tonnage of 1,738,362, entered from, and 947 with a tonnage of 1,578,325 cleared for, ports outside of Chile. In the coasting trade 2057 British vessels with a tonnage of 3,164,515 entered, and 2081 of 2,246,230 tons cleared. In 1899, in the foreign and coasting trade, 7267 vessels of altogether 10,016,704 tons entered and 7154 of 9,738,769 tons cleared at the ports of Chile. At the end of 1899 the merchant marine of Chile consisted of 142 vessels with an aggregate tonnage of 71,214 tons, including 39 steamers with a total of 27,387 tons. Chile is in regular communication with other American countries and with Europe by Chilian, English, German, and French lines of steamers.

Communications.-Chile has about 43,500 miles of public highways, with 25,000 miles of less important roads, and the length of navigable rivers is put at 2800 miles.

The total extent of railway line within the republic in 1899 reached 2886 miles, of which 1458 miles belonged to the State and the remainder to companies. The projected trans-continental railway has been constructed on the Chilian side as far as Salto del Soldado, but 46 miles of line are still required to unite it with the Argentine section. The capital invested in the State railways up to the end of 1899 was approximately 85,907,165 pesos, which (at

18d.=1 peso) would be equivalent to £6,443,440. The gross revenue in 1899 amounted to 13,997,799 pesos (£1,049,840) and the expenditure to 13,911,782 pesos (£1,043,280).

At Santiago there are 65 miles of tramway in process of conversion so as to be worked by electric traction. At Valparaiso the tramways are worked by horse-power.

Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.—In 1899 the Chilian post-office despatched 13,033,608 letters and post-cards, and 18,907,252 printed and other packets; the gross postal revenue amounted to 1,023,377 pesos (£76,750), and the expenditure to 1,065,612 pesos (£79,920). In the same year the State had 9970 miles of telegraph and telephone line, with 11,200 miles of wire, by which during the year 1,183,691 telegrams were sent and 17,831,234 conversations held, the total telegraph receipts having amounted to 613,003 pesos (£45,975). There were, besides, about 2610 miles of railway and private telegraph line. Telephonic communication has been established in all the principal towns, and two companies, one British, the other Chilian, furnish connexion between Santiago and Valparaiso, and between these cities and many smaller towns. Money and Credit.-In Chile there are 23 joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital of 40,689,665 pesos (£3,051,720) and a note issue in July 1898 of 12,733,160 pesos (or, at par, £954,990). On 31st July 1898 the national government advanced to the banks notes amounting to 27,989,929 pesos (£2,099,240) at 2 per cent. interest per annum-the total note issue for which the banks were responsible being thus raised to 40,723,089 pesos (£3,054,230). In addition, the treasury put in circulation at the same date notes amounting to 17,693,890 pesos (£1,327,040), and is also responsible for notes for 1,193,641 pesos (£89,520), issued before 1896. There are four banks not banks of issue, and also 15 mortgage banks. The latter issue bonds on real property for, professedly, not more than half its value, and these bonds are sold in open market. The value in circulation in 1899 was officially stated to amount to 155,827,119 pesos (£11,687,030); but as the price of land has recently fallen, several estates having been sold at 40 per cent. of their nominal value, while large arrears of interest (probably not less than 3,000,000 pesos, or £225,000) are due to the banks, the condition of landed property seems unsatisfactory.

Monetary System.-The monetary unit of Chile is the uncoined gold peso. Under the law of 11th February 1895 the gold coins are the condor of 20 pesos, the doblon of 10 pesos, and the escudo of 5 pesos. All gold coins are eleven-twelfths fine. The doblon weighs 5-99103 grammes or 92-4536 grains. The gold peso is of the value of 18d., or 134 pesos are equivalent to £1 sterling. The peso is equivalent also to 36 United States cents. Under the same law silver coins are 835 fine. The silver peso weighs 20 grammes or 308 64 grains, and the fractional coinage is of corresponding weight. By law of 10th January 1899, however, the coinage of fractional silver money only five-tenths fine to the amount of 5,000,000 pesos within two years was authorized.

Specie payments and the exchange of gold for silver by the mint resumed on 1st June 1895 were suspended by Act of 31st July 1898, which authorized the issue of 50,000,000 pesos in paper money with a forced circulation, and empowered the president to raise a loan of £4,000,000 sterling for the ultimate withdrawal of the notes. The immediate result was the withdrawal of gold and silver from circulation and a rapid fall in the value of the notes, which at the end of 1899 were still at a discount of 18 per cent. In 1901 the conversion scheme was postponed till October 1903. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard of Chile, but the old Spanish methods are still widely used, especially in reference to mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda, even in official reports, is almost invariably calculated by the quintal (101-40 English pounds). In silver and copper mining the marc (8 ounces) is commonly used to express the richness of the metal. Farm produce is generally sold by the arroba or fanega, whilst the vara in lineal measurement, and the cuadra for indicating the superficial area of land, are customary amongst the country people.

AUTHORITIES. ASTA-BURUAGA, F. S. Diccionario Geografico de la Republica de Chile. Leipzig, 1899.-ECHEVERRIA Y REYES, ANIBAL. Geografia Politica de Chile. Santiago, 1888, 2 vols.CHILD, THEODORE. The Spanish-American Republics. London, 1891.-ESPINOZA, ENRIQUE. Geografia Descriptiva de la Republica de Chile. Santiago, 1897.-IDEM. Geografia Descriptiva de la Republica de Chile. Santiago, 1892.-FIGUEROA, P. P. Diccionario biografico nacional, 1550-1891. Santiago, 1891.-FITZGERALD, E. A. The Highest Andes. London, 1899.-FLORES-RUIZ, FRANCO Guia de Immigrante en la Republica de Chile. Santiago, 1890. -HANCOCK, ANSON URIEL. A History of Chile. Chicago, 1893. -HERVEY, M. H. Dark Days in Chile. London, 1892.-Kunz, HUGO. Chile und die Deutschen Colonien. Leipzig, 1891. RUSSELL, WILLIAM HOWARD. A Visit to Chile and the Nitrate Fields of Tarapacá. London, 1890. -SMITH, W. ANDERSON. Temperate Chile: A Progressive Spain. London, 1899.—WIENER,

J.

CHARLES. Chile, and the Chilians. Paris, 1888. - VINCENT, FRANK. Round and about South America. New York, 1890.HERRMANN, ALBERTO. La Produccion de Oro, Plata i Cobre en Chile. Santiago, 1894.-MALDONADO, C. ROBERTO. Estudios Geograficos e Hidrograficos sobre Chiloe. Santiago, 1897.-Estadistica Comercial de la Republica de Chile, 1899. Valparaiso, 1900-Sinopsis estadistica y jeografica de la Republica de Chile en 1899. Valparaiso, 1900.-British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports. London.-United States Consular Reports. Washington. (W. W. R.; C. E. a.)

Political History since 1881.-At the opening of 1881 the war between Chile and Peru had reached a stage when the final struggle was close at hand. On 13th January of that year the Chilian forces under command of General Baquedano attacked the entrenched positions of the Peruvians at daybreak in the vicinity of Chorillos, a village some few miles from Lima and forming the outer line of defence for the capital. The fight was a very severe one-the defenders, Close of posted behind loop-holed mud walls, offering a with Peru.

the war

most stubborn resistance to the advance of the invading army. The day ended in victory for the attacking forces, but with a loss of 800 killed and 2500 wounded; the Peruvian casualties were 5000 killed, 4000 On Wounded, and 2000 officers and men taken prisoners. the following day negotiations for peace were attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in Lima, the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed. This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive, and on 15th January at 2 P.M. hostilities recommenced in the neighbourhood of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some four hours the Chilians again proved victorious, and drove the Peruvians from the second line of defence back upon the city of Lima. In this battle the invaders lost 500 men killed and 1625 wounded, the Peruvians about 3000 killed and wounded. Lima, the capital of Peru, was at the mercy of the Chilians after this last action, and on 17th January a division of 4000 men of all arms, under the command of General Cornelio Saavedra, was sent forward to occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town limits. A portion of the Chilian forces was shortly afterwards withdrawn from Peru, and the army of occupation remaining in the conquered country was in charge of Admiral Patricio Lynch, an officer who had been specially promoted for distinguished services during the war. President Anibal Pinto of Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by the armed resistance offered in the country districts to the Chilian authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces under command of General Cáceres. So matters continued the Chilians administering on the seaboard and in the principal towns, the Peruvians maintaining a guerilla warfare in the mountainous districts of the interior. In September 1881 the term of office of President Pinto expired, and he was succeeded in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in Valparaiso, leaving a memory respected and admired by all political parties in his country. The name of Pinto will always occupy a prominent place in the annals of Chilian history, not only because the war with Peru took place during his term of office, but also on account of the fact that it was largely due to the intelligent direction of all details by the President during the struggle that the Chilian arms proved so absolutely successful by land and

sea.

Señor Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presidency of Chile, was a Liberal in politics, and had previously held various important posts under the Government. Under the rule of President Montt he had been

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