Pears.-Taynton Squash, Barland, Oldfield, Moorcroft | appliances of the farm by modern mills and presses capable or Malvern Hill, Red-pear, Thurston's Red, Longland, Pine pear. No equally authoritative selection has been made for the Somerset and Devon districts, but the following varieties of cider apples are held in good repute in those parts :Kingston Black, Jersey Chisel, Hangdowns, Fair Maid of Devon, Woodbine, Duck's Bill, Slack-my-Girdle, Bottle Stopper, Golden Ball, Sugar-loaf, Red Cluster, Royal Somerset, and Cadbury (believed to be identical with the Royal Wilding of Herefordshire). As a rule the best cider apples are of small size. "Petites pommes, gros cidre," say the French. Cider and perry not being taxable liquors in England, it is impossible to estimate with even an approach to accuracy the amount of the annual production of them. In 1896 Mr Sampson, the then secretary of the National Association of English Cider-makers, in his evidence before the Royal Commission on Agriculture, put it at 55 million gallons. Since that date the increased demand for these native wines has given such an impetus to the industry that this figure might with safety be doubled. In France official statistics are available, and these show not only that that country is the largest producer of cider (including perry) in the world, but that the output is yearly increasing. In the ten years ending 1888 the annual average production amounted to 14 million hectolitres. This average was, however, largely exceeded in 1899 and 1900, the production in 1899 reaching 21 million, and in 1900 nearly 30 million hectolitres, or within 5 million hectolitres of the output of wine in the last-mentioned year. Although some cider is made in sixty-five departments, by far the largest amount comes from the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. In Germany cider-making is a considerable and growing industry. Manufactories on a small scale exist in North Germany, as at Guben and Grünberg, but the centre of the industry is at Frankfort-on-Main, Sachsenhausen, and the neighbourhood, where there are five large and twenty-five small factories employing upwards of 1000 hands. Of late years the production of cider in Wurtemberg has greatly increased, and large quantities of fruit are imported from foreign countries, especially from Switzerland, where there are numerous orchards of cider apples. Stuttgart is the principal depot for foreign fruit. Out of 2857 truckloads brought in by rail in 1898, 1973 came from Switzerland and 561 from Austria. In Baden, Hesse, Wurtemberg, and the Palatinate the highways have within the last twenty-five years been extensively planted with cider fruit. The trees belong to the respective states, which derive an increasing revenue from the sale of the fruit. Speaking generally, however, the native-grown fruit used in Germany for cider-making consists of inferior and undersized table apples not worth marketing. The cider thus made is of poor quality, but, as it is chiefly used for "bowle "-a kind of cider cup flavoured with "Mai-kraut" (the common woodruff)-the quality is not of consequence. The bottled cider for export is treated much like champagne and is usually fortified and flavoured until, in the words of an acknowledged French authority, M. Truelle, it becomes a hybrid between cider and white wine rather than pure cider. of turning out large quantities of liquor. The clearing of the juice, too, which used to be effected by running it through bags, is in the factories accomplished more quickly by forcing it through layers of compressed cotton in a machine of German origin known as Lumley's filter. The actual process of cider and perry making is a simple one, and is as described in the ninth edition of this work, but, owing in the main to the investigations of German scientists, it is now possible to trace the causes of those changes, familiar to all practical cider-makers, which occur in both cider and perry during fermentation, and thereby to impart to the manufacture of these liquors a degree of exactitude unattainable hitherto. Cider made from a judicious mixture of several varieties of apples is to be preferred to cider made from one variety only, inasmuch as it is less difficult to find the requisite degrees of richness, astringency, and flavour in several varieties than in one; but the contrary is the case with pears, of which the most noted sorts, such as the Barland, the Taynton Squash, and the Oldfield, produce the best perry when unmixed with other varieties. It is not now considered advisable to crush the seeds or pips in making cider from the best fruit, as their aromatic taste would mask or destroy the delicate flavour of the juice; but where the latter is of poor quality the crushing of the pips is admissible in order to supplement its deficiency in flavour. Some fining of an albuminous nature is generally requisite in order to clear the juice and facilitate its passage through the filter, but the less used the better. The simplest and cleanest is skim milk whipped to a froth and blended gradually with the cider as it is pumped into the mixing vat. Many nostrums are sold for the clearing of cider, but none are necessary and most are harmful. Of late years the practice has largely obtained of using preservatives for the purpose of checking fermentation. The principal preservatives employed are salicylic and boracic acid and formalin. The two former are ineffective except in quantities likely to prove hurtful to health, while formalin, in itself a powerful and deleterious drug, though it stops fermentation, renders the liquor cloudy and undrinkable. Other foreign ingredients, such as saccharin and porcherine, both coal-tar derivatives—the latter a recent discovery of a French chemist, after whom it is named-are used by many makers, chiefly for the of rendering bad and therefore unwholesome cider palatable and saleable. Provided that cider and perry be properly filtered and attention paid to perfect cleanliness of vessels and appliances, there is no need of preservatives or sweeteners, and their use ought to be forbidden by law in England, as it is in most continental states in the case of liquors to be consumed within their borders, though not, it is significant to note, in the case of liquors intended for exportation. purpose Within the last few years the wholesome properties of cider and perry when pure and unadulterated have been recognized by medical men, who recommend them as pleasant and efficacious remedies in affections of a gouty or rheumatic nature, maladies which, strange to say, these very liquors were once supposed to foster, if not actually to The practice which formerly prevailed in England of originate. Under a similar false impression the notion is making cider on the farm from the produce of the home general that hard rough cider is apt to cause diarrhoea, orchards has within the last few years been to a large colic, and kindred complaints, whereas, as a fact, disorders extent given up, and, as in Germany and many parts of of this kind are conspicuous by their absence in those parts France, farmers now sell their fruit to owners of factories of the country where rough cider and perry constitute the where the making of cider and perry is carried on as a staple drinks of the working-classes. This is especially the business of itself. In these hand or horse power is super- case in Herefordshire, which is said also to be the only seded by steam and sometimes by electricity, as in the county in England whence no instance of the occurrence of factory of E. Seigel in Grünberg, and the old-fashioned | Asiatic cholera has ever been reported. Now that the increasing demand for cider and perry has drawn attention to its importance to agriculturists, the cider-making industry has received a certain amount of assistance and encouragement from public or quasi-public sources. Many agricultural societies, including the Royal and the Bath and West, offer prizes for cider and perry in cask and bottle, and the latter society gives a grant of £100 a year towards the cost of some interesting experiments at Butleigh in Somersetshire. The county councils in the cider-producing districts have included cider-making among the subjects in which they give gratuitous instruction, though as yet these bodies are hampered by the difficulty of procuring competent teachers. The Herefordshire county council has, through the co-operation of certain landowners, obtained the use of six pomological stations in different parts of the county, consisting of small fruit plantations, where demonstrations are given in various branches of fruit culture. In addition to these the council has established a central pomological and experimental garden close to Hereford, where, as one of the principal aims of the council is to promote the cider industry, a branch of agriculture of special importance to Herefordshire, a large number of cider apples and perry pears have been planted. Included among these is a nice collection of approved French sorts obtained from Normandy; and as the varieties introduced thence, as already mentioned, about 1880, have turned out to be valuable additions to the orchards of the county, it is probable that some of these still newer importations will prove to be well suited to English soil and climate. Fruit-growers who look to cider-making as a means of utilizing windfalls and small and inferior apples of cooking and dessert varieties not worth sending to market (to quote from a paper lately read by a fruit-grower before a learned society) should be warned that it is as important to the cider industry that good cider only should be on sale as it is to the fruit-growing industry that good fruit only should be sent to market. Bad cider of English make brings discredit on the beverage and lets in the foreigner, just as inferior fruit does. The juice of the apple is naturally affected by the condition of the fruit itself, and if this be unripe, unsound, or worm-eaten the cider made from it will be inferior to that made from full-grown, ripe, and sound fruit. If such fruit be not good enough to send to market, neither will the cider made from it be good enough to place before the public. Nevertheless, it may furnish a sufficiently palatable drink for home consumption, and may therefore be so utilized. But when, as happens from time to time in fruit-growing districts, there is a glut, and even the best table fruit is not saleable at a profit, then, indeed, cider-making is a means of storing in a liquid form what would otherwise be left to rot on the ground; whilst if a proportion of vintage fruit were mixed therewith, a drink would be produced which would not discredit the cider trade, and would bring a fair return to the (c. w. R. c.) Ciechanow, a district town of Russian Poland, government Plock, on the Prussian frontier, 105 miles north-west of Warsaw. Population, 10,670. maker. Cienfuegos, one of the principal cities of Cuba, near the central portion of the south coast. It lies on a land-locked harbour known as the bay of Jagua, which Columbus visited on his second voyage, and which Father Las Casas described as the most magnificent port in the world. It was settled in 1819 by refugees from Santo Domingo. Since 1880 its trade has increased enormously. A circular railway leads to the wharves and large warehouses, thereby facilitating the loading and unloading of vessels. Many local steamers connect the town with Batabano, Trinidad, Santiago, and the Isle of Pines. The streets are regularly laid out; the houses are well built, and there are beautiful shade trees and plazas, one of which is the largest in Cuba. There is a handsome main avenue, at the end of which are statues. It is lighted by gas and electricity, has abundant watersupply, excellent clubs, and a theatre. It has also an imposing governor's house, military and government hospitals, market-place, and railway station. Some of the largest and finest sugar estates in the world are situated in the vicinity, including the Soledad and others. Probably no place on the island offers greater advantages for seeing sugar-making in its most favourable aspects. Population (1899), 30,038. Cieza, a town of Murcia, Spain, on the railway and high road from Madrid to Cartagena, and on the river Sigura. Population (1897), 11,717. Its environs .are very fertile, and produce cereals, raisins, oranges, olive, spart grass. In the town itself are flour and paper mills, sawmills, distilleries. The streets are broad, and have fine private residences, a modern town hall on the principal square, a large renaissance parish church, and a promenade styled La Glorieta. It was south coast of Asia Minor from the Alara Su, which Cilicia, the Roman Province, extended along the separated it from Pamphylia, to the Giaour Dagh, M. Amanus, which parted it from Syria. Its northern limit was the crest of M. Taurus; its southern the sea. naturally divided into Cilicia Trachea, west of the Lamas Su, and Cilicia Pedias, east of that river. Cilicia Trachea is a rugged mountain district formed by the spurs of Taurus, which run southwards to the sea, and often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered harbours, -a feature which, in classical times, made the coast a favourite resort of pirates, and, in the Middle Ages, led district is watered by the Geuk Su (Calycadnus and its to its occupation by Genoese and Venetian traders. The tributaries), and is covered to a large extent by forests which still, as of old, supply timber to Egypt and Syria. There were several towns but no large trade centres. the interior were Koropissus (Da Bazár), Olba (Uzunjaburj), and, in the valley of the Calycadnus, Claudiopolis (Mút), and Germanicopolis (Ermenek). On, or near the coast were Coracesium (Alaya), Selinus-Trajanopolis (Selinti), Anemeurium, Kelenderis (Kilindria), Seleucia (Selefke), Korykus (Korghoz), and Elæusa-Sebaste (Ayash). Roads connected Laranda, north of the Taurus, with Kelenderis and Seleuceia. In Cilicia Pedias included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large plain which consists, in great part, of a rich stoneless loam. Its eastern half is studded with isolated rocky crags, which are crowned with the ruins of ancient strongholds, and broken by the low hills that border the plain of Issus. The plain is watered by the Cydnus (Tersus Chai), the Sarus (Sihún), and the Pyramus (Jihún), each of which brings down much silt. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Such appears to have been the case when Alexander's army crossed Cilicia. The plain is extremely productive, though now little cultivated (see ADANA). Through it ran the great highway, between the east and the west, on which stood Tarsus on the Cydnus, Adana on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia (Missis), on the Pyramus. North of the road between the two last places were Sision-Flaviopolis (Sis), Anazarbus (Anazarba), and Hieropolis-Kastabala (Budrúm); and (Ayash), Issus, Baixe (Piyas), and Alexandria ad Issum (Alexandon the coast were Soli-Pompeiopolis, Mallus (Kara-tash), Ege retta). The great highway from the west, on its long rough descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, ran through a narrow pass between walls of rock called the Cilician Gate, Ghulek Boghaz. After crossing the low hills east of the Pyramus it passed through a masonry (Cilician) gate, Demir Kapu, and entered the plain of Issus. From that plain one road ran southward through a masonry (Syrian) gate to Alexandretta and thence crossed M. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Beilan Pass, to Antioch and Syria; and another ran northwards through a masonry (Amanian) gate, south of Toprak Kaleh, and crossed M. Amanus by the Amanian Gate, Baghche Pass, to North Syria and the Euphrates. By the last pass, which was apparently unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the mountains prior to the battle of Issus. Both passes are short and easy, and connect Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria rather than with Asia Minor. Another important road connected Sision with Kokusos and Melitene. In Roman times Cilicia exported the goats'-hair cloth, Cilicium, of which tents were made. Cilicia has been identified by some authorities with the Kuah and Helak of the emended texts of 1 Kings x. 28, and Ezek. xxvii. 11, and by Maspero with the Keti of the Egyptian inscriptions. The Cilicians appear to have belonged to that great family of non-Aryan tribes which included the SyroCappadocians, or Hittites, and the Proto-Armenians. Under the Persian Empire, Cilicia was apparently governed by tributary native kings who bore the name Syennesis. After Alexander's death it was loosely held by the Seleucid kings, and Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates who were subdued by Pompey. Cilicia Pedias became Roman territory in 103 B.C., and the whole was organized by Pompey, 64 B.C., into a province which extended to and included part of Phrygia. It was reorganized by Cæsar, 47 B.C., and about 27 B.C. became part of the province Syria-Cilicia-Phonice. At first the western district was left independent under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under Tarkondimotus, was left in the east; but these were finally united to the province by Vespasian, A.D. 74. Under Diocletian, circ. 297, Cilicia, with the Syrian and Egyptian provinces, formed the Diocesis Orientis. In the 7th century it was invaded by the Arabs, who held the country until it was reoccupied by Nicephorus II. in 965. The Seljúk invasion of Armenia was followed by an exodus of Armenians southwards, and in 1080 Rhupen, a relative of the last king of Ani, founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small principality which gradually expanded into the kingdom of Lesser Armenia. This Christian kingdom-situated in the midst of Moslem states, hostile to the Byzantines, giving valuable support to the leaders of the Crusades, and trading with the great commercial cities of Italy-had a stormy existence of about 300 years. Gosdantin I. (1095-1100) assisted the Crusaders on their march to Antioch, and was created knight and marquis. Thoros I. (1100-1123), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria, waged successful war against Byzantines and Seljuks. Levond II., "the Great" (1185-1219), extended the kingdom beyond Mount Taurus and established the capital at Sis. He assisted the Crusaders, and was crowned king by the archbishop of Mayence, and married one of the Lusignans of Cyprus. Haithon I. (1224–69) made an alliance with the Mongols, who, before their adoption of Islám, protected his kingdom from the Memlúks of Egypt. When Levond V. died (1342), John of Lusignan was crowned king as Gosdantin IV.; but he and his successors alienated the Armenians by attempting to make them conform to the Roman Church, and by giving all posts of honour to Latins, and at last the kingdom, a prey to internal dissensions, succumbed (1375) to the attacks of the Egyptians. Cilicia Trachea was occupied by the Osmanlis in the 15th century, but C. Pedias was only added to the empire in 1515. From 1833 to 1840 Cilicia formed part of the dominion of Mahommed Ali, who was compelled to evacuate it by the Allied Powers. RAMSAY. Historical Geography of Asia Minor, 1890.-BENT and HICKS in Journal of Hellenic Studies, 1890.-STERRETT in Journal Archaelog. Inst. of America, 1884-85.-MARQUARDT. Römische Staatsverwaltung. (c. w. w.) Cilli (Slovene, CELJE), an old and picturesque town with special charter and seat of a district administration in Styria (Austria). It is situated on the left bank of the Sann river, and is a station on the Southern Railway from Vienna to Trieste. Apart from the parish church, dating from the 14th century, Cilli furnishes some interesting specimens of medieval architecture, such as the beautiful Gothic chapel and the so-called German church in the Romanesque style. Remains of the old walls and towers with which the town was once surrounded are yet visible, and memorials of a still earlier period of its historyRoman antiquities are to be seen in the municipal museum. Cilli owes a good deal of its recent prosperity to the growing popularity of its river baths, which have converted it into a favourite summer resort. During the bathing season the water has a temperature of 75° to 85° Fahr. It has also a considerable trade in timber, iron, leather, corn, and coal, while its industries include zinc smelting and metal works, and the manufacture of chemicals, explosives, veneers, leather, brick and tiles, flour and beer. The town has latterly taken a somewhat prominent part in the nationality struggle; it was an educational concession to the Slovene element of the population which brought about the fall of the German, Clerical, and Polish coalition in June 1895. Population (1890), 6264; (1900), 6743 (about 75 per cent. German, and 25 per cent. Slovene; 99 per cent. Roman Catholic, and 1 per cent. Protestant). Cilli, which is mentioned by the Elder Pliny, and whose origin was attributed to the Celts, was taken possession of by the Romans (15 B.C.) under the Emperor Claudius and received the name of Claudia Celeja. It was incorporated with Aquileia, under Constantine; and towards the end of the 6th century was destroyed by the invading Slavs. It had a period of exceptional prosperity from the middle of the 14th to the latter half of the 15th century under the Counts of Cilli, on the extinction of which family it fell to Austria. In the 16th century it suffered greatly both from revolts of the peasantry and from the CounterReformation, Protestantism having made many converts in the district, particularly among the nobles. (Æ. O'N.) Cincinnati, the capital of Hamilton county, Ohio, U.S.A., situated on the north bank of the Ohio river, N. lat. 39° 6', W. long. 84° 26', the tenth city in population in the Union. The population in 1890 was 296,908, 71,408 being foreign-born, chiefly German, Irish, British, and Russian; in 1900 it was 325,902, of whom 57,961 were foreign-born and 14,482 were negroes. These figures do not include suburbs, with an estimated population of 60,000; nor the cities of Covington and Newport and adjoining towns on the south bank of the Ohio, with a population of 71,329. Five bridges connect Cincinnati with these cities, over three of which trolley cars run. There are forty-four lines of street cars extending many miles in all directions from a common central point in the city. These have pushed the area of residence and manufacture far beyond the surrounding hills on which are the original suburbs. The hill-tops are also reached by four inclined-plane cable railways. The climate is salubrious; the mean temperature in summer is 75.5° F., in winter 38.1°, and for the year 55.9°. The mean relative humidity is 71 per cent. According to the U.S. census, the deathrate of Cincinnati in 1890 was 210; in 1900 it was There are 376 19.2, showing a considerable decrease. miles of improved streets largely paved with granite, asphalt, and brick. The adjoining parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky are thickly settled, and Cincinnati is the commercial centre of a rich, fertile, and populous region comprising parts of ten states. Sixteen lines of railway enter it from all directions, one of which-that to Chattanooga, 334 miles long-was built and is owned by the city. It cost $18,000,000, and is run by a lessee, at an annual rental of $1,000,000. Steam river navigation has declined as railways have increased, there being, in 1899, ninety vessels registered with a tonnage of 16,827. The National Government has improved and lighted the channel, and large quantities of coal, ore, iron, lumber, and salt float down in flatboats. Cincinnati is a growing seat of education. Besides the university of Cincinnati, with law, medical, and other departments, it contains St Xavier and other colleges and schools for general and special instruction, a college of music, an art school, a technical school, a mechanics' institute, a college of pharmacy, and a Hebrew union college for the education of rabbis, which is the only one of the kind in the United States. Scientific, social, historical, political, and other societies are numerous, many having buildings and libraries. There are 246 churches of 25 sects. There are 1 city, 1 United States, 4 private and 11 charity hospitals. A fresh-air home and farm for poor children has been established by private subscriptions. The art museum in Eden Park with galleries, &c. (cost of building, $350,000; endowment, $580,000), and separate buildings for art school and library, are the gift of citizens; as are also the music hall, with a seating capacity of 5000, where musical festivals occur biennially; and the library and two other buildings of the university in Burnet Woods Park. A large, well-appointed zoological garden is privately maintained, but not for profit. Among other new buildings are the United States building, which cost $5,000,000; the city hall, which cost $1,500,000; the court house, which replaces that burned by a mob in 1884; Chamber of Commerce, Armoury, Turner's hall, Odd Fellows' temple, Young Men's Christian Association, Union Trust Co., 17 storeys high; Queen City, Phoenix, and Cincinnati clubs. In the parks are statues of Presidents W. H. Harrison, Garfield, and Lincoln, and of Captain Desmond, killed in defending the court house. There are 11 daily newspapers and 214 other regular publications. The central situation of the city and its accessibility make it a common meeting-place for general bodies. The government is by a mayor, a board of legislation, and a general administrative board of public service of five members, all elective. The rate of taxation is 2.574 per cent; the public debt $25,546,456.43 (including the cost of the railway to Chattanooga); the city's credit is high, 3 per cent. bonds commanding a premium. The greatest recent growth of Cincinnati has been industrial. There are over 200 industries. results, which when passed in rapid and intermittent succession before the eye gives the appearance of a photograph in motion. The original apparatus showed the film to a single observer, but in its perfected form it throws the successive images on a screen by means of a lantern so that an entire audience can see them. In one apparatus for making the exposures a cam jerks the film across the field once for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a drum at a constant rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to give four images for each rotation, the film travelling so as to present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place. Twenty-five to fifty pictures may be taken per second. At the slower rate it is found in practice that during the operation the film should be stationary about 11ths of the time. The films are developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric light may be fixed to enable the process to be watched. In the magic lantern an electric lamp or limelight of high power projects, through an objective lens, the successive images of the film upon a distant screen. Such subjects as an army on the march, or an express train at full speed, are presented with marvellous distinctness and completeness of detail. To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the film for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in position. As they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. For an hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed, and they are fed at the rate of 26 miles an hour. A very simple system of exhibiting the views consists in attaching them by their lower edge transversely to a band which moves over two rollers. A detent at the top holds back the top edges so that they fly across, as the band rotates, like the leaves of a book. By looking at them at this point the effect of motion is produced. This method has been so simplified that little books of cinetoscopic views are sold, from which the moving effect is obtained by simply letting the leaves escape rapidly from the thumb as the book is bent backwards. (T. o'c. s.) Cintra, a picturesque town of Portugal, district Lisbon, 16 miles north-west from Lisbon, in great repute as a summer resort owing to its salubrious climate. Many new villas have recently been built. Population, 4928. Ciotat, La, a coast town and railway station, France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône, arrondissement of Marseilles, 20 miles south-east of that town. The port, easily accessible for vessels drawing 19 feet, is well sheltered, and defended by a battery. Large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks give employment to about 3000 workmen. Other important industries are the fisheries and the coral fishery. Coasting trade is actively carried on; the town is frequented for sea-bathing. Population (1881), 8045; (1901), 11,311. Circleville, capital of Pickaway county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the east bank of Scioto river, which here is not navigable. It is on the Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley, and the Norfolk and Western Railways, at an altitude of 707 feet. Its manufactures consist in large part of furniture and agricultural implements. It occupies the site of ancient earthworks of the mound-builders, from one of which, a circle, it derives its name. Population (1880), 6046; (1900), 6991. There are 19 banks-other than Savings and Building and Loan Associations, which are numerous—with a capital of $8,415,000, and total clearings in 1899 of $748,490,350. (J. HA,) Cinematograph.-The cinematograph is an application of photography to the zoëtrope. This apparatus shows in rapid sequence a series of views representing closely successive phases of a moving object, and persistence of vision creates the illusion that the object is in motion. The cinematograph, invented by Edison in 1894, is the result of the introduction of the flexible film into photography in place of glass. A long sensitized film is moved across the focal plane of a camera and exposed Cittadella, a town of Italy, Venetia, province of intermittently to moving objects. A series of images | Padua, 23 miles north by west from Padua. It is still Circulation of the blood. See under PHYSIOLOGY (Vascular System) and PATHOLOGY (Circulation). surrounded with medieval walls and towers, and possessed of a fine parish church, theatre, and botanical garden. It was founded in 1220 as a border defence of the people of Padua against Treviso. It has a technical school. Population, about 9500. Cittanova, a town of Calabria, Italy, province of Reggio, 31 miles north-east from Reggio. It was built up out of the ruins of the former Casalnuovo (destroyed by an earthquake in 1783), and took its present name in 1852. It has olive-oil presses. Population, about 11,400. Ciudad Bolivar, capital of the state of Bolivar in Venezuela, on the right bank of the Orinoco river, about 240 miles from the mouth, at an elevation of 187 feet above the sea. Up to 1846 it was known as Angostura. Its population numbers over 15,000. It is a great commercial centre for the whole Guiana region; the port through which all the gold is exported; maintains steamship communication with Trinidad; and is the starting point for the steamers furnishing the mail, passenger, and freight service to all points on the upper Orinoco and between Apure and Nutrias. The market, cathedral, masonic temple, custom-house, university, and theatre are the most important buildings. The customs receipts for the year ending 30th June 1896 were 3,285,371 bolivars. The returns of shipping for 1898 were entered 70 ships of 22,326 tons, cleared 59 ships of 21,762 tons. The value of the exports in 1897 was £339,197, and in 1898 it was £354,008. In 1897 the imports were valued at £243,845, and in 1898 at £233,800. Ciudad Real, a province of South Central Spain divided into 10 administrative districts and 96 parishes, with an area of 7840 square miles. The population was 292,291 in 1887 and 305,002 in 1897. Only about 8000 acres are properly irrigated, 670,000 acres are covered with forests, and about 1200 square miles are covered with sparse vegetation and meagre brushwood. It is the grazing ground of large flocks, but the locust plague often destroys vast extents of pasture. Some of the rivers of Ciudad Real, like the Yavalon and Azuel, curiously rise from chalky soil, and from their very sources give abundant supplies of water to many mills. Almost the whole province is in the upper basin of the Guadiana, except the southernmost part, where several tributaries of the Guadalquivir water some districts. The means of communication, except the railways, are in a very bad condition. In 1897, out of 53,944 boys and girls between the ages of 4 and 14, there were 32,338 on the school registers, but only 22,601 really attended classes. The province has 280 miles of railways, and one will connect the important coal-mines of Puertollano with Cordova. One quicksilver, one zinc, 6 coal, and 18 lead mines were worked in 1898. The province produced 19,945 tons of quicksilver ore, 201,097 of coal, 4261 of lead, and 23,514 of argentiferous lead. The net increase of coal was 70,550 tons in 1898, being 54 per cent. over the figures of 1897. The mines employed in all 5257 men, 679 lads, 177 women. The live stock includes 12,001 horses, 36,051 mules, 33,380 asses, 21,680 cattle, 337,892 sheep, 196,501 goats, and 57,790 pigs. 288,437 acres are devoted to wheat crops, 136,037 to barley, 15,042 to rye, 7607 to oats, 3688 to pod fruit, 150,744 to vines, 80,045 to olives. Ciudad Real, the capital of the above province, had a population of .14,700 in 1887, and 14,547 in 1897. It has fine modern schools, an institute, a training school for teachers, and some good public buildings, town hall, barracks, casinos, prison. The chief commerce of the town is in agricultural products and live stock at the weekly fairs. crown. History. Civil List.—The civil list is the account in which are contained all the expenses immediately applicable to the support of the British sovereign's household and the honour and dignity of the crown. An annual sum is settled by Parliament at the beginning of the reign on the sovereign, But it is only and is charged on the Consolidated Fund. from the reign of William IV. that the sum thus voted. has been restricted solely to the personal expenses of the Before his accession many charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of Government had been placed on the civil list. The history of the civil list dates from the reign of William and Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had been made between the expenses of Government in time of peace and the expenses relating to the personal dignity and support of the sovereign. The ordinary revenues derived from the hereditary revenues of the crown, and from certain taxes voted for life to the king at the beginning of each reign, were supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign's dignity and the civil Government, as well as for the public defence in time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure touching the government of the country or its defence would go to swell his privy purse. But with the Revolution a step forward was made towards the establishment of the principle that the expenses relating to the support of the crown should be separated from the ordinary expenses of the State. evils of the old system under which no appropriation was made of the ordinary revenue granted to the crown for life had been made manifest in the reign of Charles II. and James II.; it was their control of these large revenues that made them so independent of Parliament. Moreover, while the civil Government and the defences suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The Parliament of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown in time of peace at £1,200,000 per annum; of this sum about £700,000 was appropriated towards the "civil list.' But from this the sovereign was to defray the expenses of the civil service and the payment of pensions, as well as the cost of the support of the royal household and his own personal expenses. It was from this that the term "civil list " arose, to distinguish it from the statement of military and naval charges. The revenue voted to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary revenues of the crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes and additions were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of George III., when a different system was adopted. Generally speaking, however, the sources of revenue remained as settled at the Revolution. The Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual income of £700,000. During her reign a debt of £1,200,000 was incurred. This debt was paid Anne, by Parliament and charged on the civil list George I., itself. George I. enjoyed the same revenue by and parliamentary grant, in addition to an annual George II. sum of £120,000 on the Aggregate Fund. A debt of £1,000,000 was incurred, and discharged by Parliament in the same manner as Anne's debt had been. To George II. a civil list of £800,000 as a minimum was granted, Parliament undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources of income appropriated to its service fell short of that sum. Thus in 1746 a debt of £456,000 was paid by Parliament on the civil list. On the accession of George III. a change was made in the system of the civil list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated to the service of the civil list had been settled on the crown. If these revenues exceeded the sum they were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the king. George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the hereditary George III. |