the Exchequer. He proposed also that the civil list should be divided into classes, an arrangement which later was carried into effect. In 1780 Burke succeeded in bringing

During the reign of George III. the civil list played an important part in the history of the struggle on the part of the king to establish the royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropriated to its service came a large portion of the money employed by the king in creating places and pensions for his supporters in Parliament, and, under the colour of the royal bounty, bribery was practised on a large scale. No limit was set to the amount applicable to the pensions charged on the civil list, so long as the sum granted could meet the demand; and there was no principle on which the grant was regulated. Secret pensions at the king's pleasure were paid out of it, and in every way the independence of Parliament was menaced; and though the more legitimate expenses of the royal household were diminished by the king's penurious style of living, and though many charges not directly connected with the king's personal expenditure were removed, the amount was constantly exceeded, and applications were made from time to time to Parliament to pay off debts incurred; and thus opportunity was given for criticism. In 1769 a debt of £513,511 was paid off in arrears; and in spite of the demand for accounts and for an inquiry into the cause of the debt, the ministry succeeded in securing this vote without granting such information. All attempts to investigate the civil list were successfully resisted, though Lord Chatham went so far as to declare himself convinced that the funds were expended in corrupting members of Parliament. Again, in 1777, an application was made to Parliament to pay off £618,340 of debts; and in view of the growing discontent Lord North no longer dared to withhold accounts. Yet, in spite of strong opposition and free criticism, not only was the amount voted, but also a further £100,000 per annum, thus raising the civil list to an annual sum of £900,000.

Indebtedness of civil list.

In 1779, at a time when the expenditure of the country and the national debt had been enormously increased by the American war, the general dissatisfaction found voice in Parliament, and the abuses of the civil list were specially singled out for attack. Many petitions were presented to the House of Commons praying for its reduction, and a motion was made in the House of Lords in the same sense, though it was rejected. In 1780 Burke brought forward his scheme of economic reform, but his name was already associated with the growing desire to remedy the evils of the civil list by the publication in 1769 of his pamphlet on "The Causes of the Present Discontent." In this scheme Burke freely animadverts on the profusion and abuse of the civil list, criticizing the useless and obsolete offices and the offices performed by deputy. In every department he discovers jobbery, waste, and peculation. His proposal was that the many offices should be reduced and consolidated, that the pension list should be brought down to a fixed sum of £60,000 per annum, and that pensions should be conferred only to reward merit or fulfil real public charity. All pensions were to be paid at

In 1782 the Rockingham Ministry, pledged to economic reform, came into power; and the Civil List Act, 1782, was introduced and carried with the express Civil List object of limiting the patronage and influence Act, 1782. of ministers, or, in other words, the ascendancy of the crown over Parliament. Not only did the Act effect the abolition of a number of useless offices, but it also imposed restraints on the issue of secret service money, and made provision for a more effectual supervision of the royal expenditure. As to the pension list, the annual amount was to be limited to £95,000; no pension to any one person was to exceed £1200, and all pensions were to be paid at the Exchequer, thus putting a stop to the secret pensions payable during pleasure. Moreover, pensions were only to be bestowed in the way of royal bounty for persons in distress or as a reward for merit. Another very important change was made by this Act: the civil list was divided into classes, and a fixed amount was to be appropriated to each class. The following were the classes :—

1. Pensions and allowances of the royal family.

2. Payment of salaries of Lord Chancellor, Speaker, and judges. 3. Salaries of ministers to foreign courts resident at the same. 4. Approved bills of tradesmen, artificers, and labourers for any article supplied and work done for His Majesty's service. 5. Menial servants of the household. 6. Pension list.

7. Salaries of all other places payable out of the civil list

revenues.

8. Salaries and pensions of treasurer or commissioners of the treasury and of the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Yet debt was still the condition of the civil list down to the end of the reign, in spite of the reforms established by the Rockingham Ministry, and notwithstanding the removal from the list of many charges unconnected with the king's personal expenses. The debts discharged by Parliament between 1782, the date of the passing of the Civil List Act, and the end of George III.'s reign, amounted to £2,300,000. In all, during his reign £3,398,061 of debt owing by the civil list was paid off.

With the regency the civil list was increased by £70,000 per annum, and a special grant of £100,000 was settled on the Prince Regent. In 1816 the annual amount was settled at £1,083,727, including the establishment of the king, now insane; though the civil list was relieved from some annuities payable to the royal family. Nevertheless, the fund still continued charged with such civil expenses as the salaries of judges, ambassadors, and officers of state, and with pensions granted for public services. Other reforms were made as regards the definition of the several classes of expenditure, while the expenses of the royal household were henceforth to be audited by a Treasury official-the auditor of the civil list. On the accession of George IV. the civil list, freed from the expenses of the late king, was settled at £845,727. On William IV. coming to the throne a sum of £510,000 per annum was fixed for the service of the civil list. The king at the same time surrendered all the sources of revenue enjoyed by his predecessors, apart from the civil list, represented by the hereditary revenues of Scotlandthe Irish civil list, the droits of the crown and admiralty, the 4 per cent. duties, the West India duties, and other S. III. -13

casual revenues hitherto vested in the crown, and independent of Parliament. The revenues of the duchy of Lancaster were still retained by the crown. In return for this surrender and the diminished sum voted, the civil list was relieved from all the charges relating rather to the civil Government than to the support of the dignity of the crown and the royal household. The future expenditure was divided into five classes, and a fixed annual sum was appropriated to each class. The pension list was reduced to £75,000. The king resisted an attempt on the part of the select committee to reduce the salaries of the officers of state on the grounds that this touched his prerogative, and the ministry of Earl Grey yielded to his remonstrance.

The civil list of Queen Victoria was settled on the same principles as that of William IV. A considerable reduction was made in the aggregate annual sum voted, from £510,000 to £385,000, and the pension list was separated from the ordinary civil list. The civil list proper was divided into the following five classes, with a fixed sum appropriated to each :

Queen Victoria's civil list.

In addition the Queen might, on the advice of her ministers, grant pensions up to £1200 per annum, in accordance with a resolution of the House of Commons of 18th February 1834, "to such persons as have just claims on the royal beneficence, or who, by their personal services to the crown, by the performance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in science and attainments in literature and art, have merited the gracious consideration of the sovereign and the gratitude of their country." The service of these pensions increased the annual sum devoted to support the dignity of the crown and the expenses of the household to about £409,000. The list of pensions must be laid before Parliament within thirty days of 20th June. Thus the civil list was reduced in amount, and relieved from the very charges which gave it its name as distinct from the statement of military and naval charges. It now really only dealt with the support of the dignity and honour of the crown and the royal household. The arrangement was most successful, and during the last three reigns there was no application to Parliament for the discharge of debts incurred on the civil list.

The death of Queen Victoria rendered it necessary that a renewed provision should be made for the civil list; and King Edward VII., following former precedents, Civil List placed unreservedly at the disposal of ParliaAct, 1901. ment his hereditary revenues. A select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider the provisions of the civil list for the crown, and to report also on the question of grants for the honourable support and maintenance of Her Majesty the Queen and the members of the royal family. The committee in their conclusions were guided to a considerable extent by the actual civil list expenditure during the last ten years of the last reign, and made certain recommendations which, without undue interference with the sovereign's personal arrangements, tended towards increased efficiency and economy in the support of the sovereign's household and the honour and dignity of the crown. On their report was based the Civil List Act, 1901, which established the new civil list. The system that the hereditary revenues should as before be paid into the exchequer and be part of the consolidated fund was maintained. The amount payable for the civil list was

increased from £385,000 to £470,000. In the application of this sum the number of classes of expenditure to which separate amounts are to be appropriated is increased from five to six. The following is the new arrangement of classes:-1st class, Their Majesties' privy purse, £110,000; 2nd class, salaries of His Majesty's household and retired allowances, £125,800; 3rd class, expenses of His Majesty's household, £193,000; 4th class, works (the interior repair and decoration of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle), £20,000; 5th class, royal bounty, alms, and special services, £13,200; 6th class, unappropriated, £8000. The system relating to civil list pensions, established by the Civil List Act, 1837, continues to apply, but the pensions are not to be regarded as chargeable on the sum paid for the civil list. The committee also advised that the mastership of the Buckhounds should not be continued; and His Majesty, on the advice of his ministers, agreed to accept their recommendation. The maintenance of the royal hunt thus ceases to be a charge on the civil list. The annuities of £20,000 to the prince of Wales, of £10,000 to the princess of Wales, and of £18,000 to His Majesty's three daughters, are not included in the civil list, though they are conferred by the same Act. Other grants made by special Acts of Parliament to members of the royal family are also excluded from it. (H. S. s.)

Civil Service. - British Empire. The civil service is the generic name given to all public servants. It is the machinery by which the executive, through the various administrations, carries on the central government of the country. The cost of the civil services has increased of late years. The net total of the estimates for the civil services for 1901-2 was £23,630,120, as opposed to £22,838,808 for 1900-1. The increase (after the adjustment of certain items) was £783,812, as opposed to the increase of £659,143 in 1900-1.

The appointments to the civil service until the year 1855 were made by nomination, with an examination not sufficient to form an intellectual or even a physical test. It was only after much consideration and almost years of discussion that the nomination system was abandoned. Various commissions reported on the civil service, and Orders in Council were issued. Finally in 1855 a qualifying examination of a stringent character was instituted, and in 1870 the principle of open competition was adopted as a general rule. On the report of the Playfair Commission (1876), an Order in Council was issued dividing the civil service into an upper and lower division. The Order in Council directed that a lower division 'should be constituted, and men and boy clerks holding permanent positions replaced the temporary assistants and writers. The "temporary" assistant was not found to be advantageous to the service. In December 1886 a new class of assistant clerks was formed to replace the men copyists. In 1887 the Ridley Commission reported on the civil service establishment. In 1890 two Orders in Council were issued based on the reports of the Ridley Commission, which sat from 1886 to 1890. The first Order constituted what is now known as the second division of the civil service. The second Order in Council concerns the officers of the 1st class, and provision was made for the possible promotion of the second division clerks to the first division after eight years' service.

The whole system is under the administration of the Civil Service Commissioners, and power is given to them, with the approval of the Treasury, to prescribe the subjects of examination, limits of age, &c. The age is fixed for compulsory retirement at sixty-five. In exceptional cases a prolongation of five years is within the powers of the Civil

English history; (4) translation from one of the following languages-Latin, French, or German; (5) Euclid, bk. i. and ii., and algebra, up to and including simple equations; (6) rudiments of chemistry and physics. Candidates must be between the ages of fifteen and eighteen. They have no claims to superannuation or compensation allowance. Boy copyists will not be retained after the age of twenty.

Candidates for the Civil Service of India take the same examination as for 1st class clerkships. Candidates successful in the examination must subsequently spend one year in England. They receive for that year £100 if they elect to live at one of the universities or colleges approved by the Secretary of State for India. At the close of this year they will be submitted to a final examination in the following subjects—Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure, the principal vernacular language of the province to which they are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act (these three subjects are compulsory), the Code of Civil Procedure and the Indian Contract Act, Hindu and Mahommedan Law, Sanscrit, Arabic, Persian, the history of British India, Chinese (for Burma only). Of these seven two are to be selected, but a candidate may not take Arabic or Sanscrit both in the first examination and in the final. They must also pass a thorough examination in riding, which is conducted at the Royal Artillery Riding School at Woolwich. On reaching India their salary begins at 400 rupees a month. In 1899 the value of the rupee was permanently fixed by Government at ls. 4d. They may take, as leave, one-fourth of the time on active service in periods strictly limited by regulation. After twenty-five years' service (of which twenty-one must be active service) they can retire on a pension of £1000 a year. The unit of administration is the district. At the head of the district is an executive officer called either collector-magistrate or

deputy-commissioner. In most provinces he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds directly with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after four years' probation in both branches of the service is called upon to elect whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department, and this choice as a rule is held to be final for his future work.

Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pass a competitive examination, one of the compulsory subjects being German. They have also to pass a severe medical examination, especially in their powers of vision and hearing. They must be between the ages of seventeen and twenty. Successful candidates are required to pass a three years' course, with a final examination, seven terms of the course at Cooper's Hill, the rest of the time receiving practical instruction in Continental forests. The obligatory expenses at Cooper's Hill are £61 a term, and £150 is charged for the time abroad. On reaching India they start as assistant conservators at 250 rupees a month. The highest salary, that of inspector-general of forests, in the India Forest Service is 2000 rupecs a month.

The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination of very much the same kind as for the Forests, except that special subjects such as German and botany are not included. The candidates are limited in age to nineteen and twenty-one. They must pass a riding examination. A free passage out is given them. They are allotted as probationers, their wishes being consulted as far as possible as to their province. probationer receives 250 rupees a month. A district superintendent can rise to 1000 rupees a month, while there are a few posts with a salary of 2500 rupees a month in the Police Service. The leave and pension in both these departments follow the general rules for Indian services.

A

The Civil Service also includes student interpreterships for China, Japan, and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia, Greece, and Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters are selected by open competition. Their object is to supply the consular service in the above-named countries with persons having a thorough knowledge of the language of the country in which they

serve.

In the first case, China, Japan, &c., they learn their language in the country itself, receiving £200 as probationers. Then they become assistants in a consulate. The highest post is that of consul-general. In the case of student interpreters for the Ottoman dominions, Persia, Greece, and Morocco, the successful candidates learn their languages at Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but they pay the usual fees for other languages. At Oxford they receive £200 a year for two years. On leaving Oxford they become assistants under the embassy at Constantinople, the legations at Teheran, Athens, or Morocco, or at one of H.B.M. consulates. As assistants they receive £300 a year. The consuls, the highest post to which they can reach, receive in the Levant from £500 to £1600 a year. The civil services of Ceylon, HongKong, the Straits Settlements, and the Malay Peninsula are supplied by the Eastern cadetships. The limits of age for the examination are twenty-one and twenty-four. The cadets are required to learn the native language of the colony or dependency and Malay cadets they may have to learn Chinese or Tamil, as to which they are assigned. In the case of the Straits Settlements well as the native language. The salaries are: passed cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing until first-class officers receive from 12,000 to 18,000 rupees per annum. They are allowed absence on half pay after six years' service, or before that if three months' vacation on full pay in two years, and leave of urgently needed. They can retire for ill-health after ten years with fifteen-sixtieths of their annual salary. Otherwise they can add one-sixtieth of their annual salary to their pension for every additional year's service up to thirty-five years' service.

In spite of the general rule of open competition, there are still a few departments where the system of nomination obtains, accompanied by a severe test of knowledge. In the following offices it is so for some of the appointments.

Foreign Office (all the following posts):-8 ambassadors, 16 ministers plenipotentiary, 10 ministers resident, 2 agents and 6 commercial attachés, 34 2nd secretaries, 23 3rd secretaries consuls-general, 8 secretaries of embassy, 15 secretaries of legation, (attachés); Metropolitan police courts; mines; naval service, assistant clerks; post office secretary's office, supplementary, office of the controller of stores; British Museum; clerks of the two Houses of Parliament; Royal Irish Constabulary; Board of Education; Education Office for Ireland; Inspectors of Factories.

The employment of women in the Civil Service has not yet been much developed except in the Post Office. Women are employed in the Post Office as female clerks, mistresses all over the United Kingdom. counter clerks, telegraphists, returners, sorters, and postIn 1881 the Postmaster-General took a decided step in favour of female employment, and with the consent of the Treasury in contact with the public. instituted female clerkships. Female clerks do not come Their duties are purely clerical, and entirely in the accountant-general's department at the Savings Bank.

ordinary Civil Service scale. The examination is competitive, the Their leave is one month per annum, their pension is on the subjects are handwriting and spelling, arithmetic, English composition, geography, English history, French or German. Candidates must be between the ages of 18-20. Whether unmarried or widows they must resign on marriage. The class of girl clerks take the same subjects in a competitive examination. They must be between the ages of 16-18; they serve only in the Savings Bank department. If competent they can pass on later to female clerkships. The salaries of the female clerkships range from £200 girl clerks are paid from £35 to £40, with the chance of advanceto £500 in the higher grade, £55 to £190 in the 2nd class, whilst ment to higher posts. The total of women employed by the Post Office and telegraphs is not to be found in official returns, but women are now so largely employed not only in the higher grades, but as sorters, counter clerks, telegraphists in London and throughout the country that the aggregate number is very considerable. For instance, there are 778 sorters, counter clerks, and telegraphists in the Metropolitan district alone.

In other departments there is a notable increase in female employment. The Board of Agriculture, the Customs, and the India Office employ women. Technical Education, the Board of Education generally, the Local The Department of Agriculture, Government Board, all to a certain extent employ women, whilst in the Home Office there are seven women inspectors of Workshops and Factories. (JNO. S.)

United States.-Civil Service Reform, like other great administrative reforms, began in America in the latter half of the 19th century. Personal and partisan government, with