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weapon is usually the bow, sometimes the spear; on one occasion he grapples with the lion, hand to jowl,
and stabs the quarry to the heart with a short sword. The quiet dignity and royal calm with which the
feat is achieved must have ensured the artist a high and enduring place in the royal favour.
The action,
however, of the human figures in these sculptures is always sedate and reposeful, suggestive of reserved
strength perhaps, or possibly of the artist's limitations. Whichever it is, the real power of the artist is
not shown in the human figures. These, to be sure, are in part strongly anatomized; in the main, they
are fairly proportioned, and, unlike the Egyptian figures, they have the shoulders drawn in proper per-
spective. But the faces are fixed, impassive; the eyes are not in perspective, and, as a whole, they cannot
claim high merit as works of art, viewed from an abstract modern standpoint. Considered in relation to
their time, they are wonderful enough, so far ahead are they of anything that we could suppose to have been
accomplished in the world of that day. But they fall far short of the standard which the same artist has
himself given us in animal figures of his composition. It seems as if the human figures might have been
done from memory, whereas the animal forms are clearly enough from the natural model. Indeed, when
we turn to these animal figures we may criticize them, not with reservation as to their age, but from the
standpoint of modern art, and as individual figures they will not be found wanting. The three funda-
mental canons—" proportion, action, aspect "—have been successfully met. The lions skulk sullenly from
their cages, spring furiously into action, or roll in death-agony at the will of the depicter. The lioness,
with spine broken by an arrow, dragging her palsied hind-quarters, is a veritable masterpiece. The same
is true of many of the figures of goats, of running and pacing wild asses, and of dogs. As a whole, these
animal frescoes are nothing less than wonderful. It is worth a visit to London from the remotest land to
see these sculptures from the palace of the old Assyrian king.

Still, though these bas-reliefs have intrinsic merits as works of art, their chief value is for what they teach regarding the evolution of art in the world. Previously to their discovery it had been supposed that the stiff formalism of Egyptian sculpture represented the fullest flight of pre-Grecian art; and that Greek art itself had stepped suddenly forth, rather a new creation than an evolution. But the pick and shovel of Layard at Nineveh dispelled that illusion. For these art treasures, that had lain there under the deposits of centuries, were found to represent an enormous advance upon Egyptian models, precisely in the direction of that realism for which Greek art is distinguished.

If we would judge how direct and unequivocal was the impulse which the dying nation transferred to the adolescent one in point of art, we have but to take a few steps in the British Museum, from the Assyrian rooms to the wonderful hall that holds Lord Elgin's trophies from the desecrated Parthenon. Look then upon the frieze of bas-relief that bears the magic name of Phidias. If anything can reconcile us to the act that deprived Greece of her priceless heirlooms, it is the fact that they have found lodgment here close beside their Oriental prototypes, where half a million visitors each year may at least have an opportunity to learn the lesson that human progress is an accretion, a growth, a building upon foundations; and, specifically, that Greek art, no less than other forms of human culture, was an evolution, and not an isolated miracle. For what is the Parthenon frieze, as we now come to it fresh from the palaces of Nineveh, but an Assyrian fresco adapted to the needs and ideals of another race and developed by the genius of a newer civilization? The profiled figures in low relief coursing together, are they different in conception from the profiled figures of the palaces we have just left? The horses of the Parthenon' frieze might almost seem to have stepped bodily from the palaces of Assur-bani-pal. They have gained something in suppleness of limb, have altered their attitude in a measure, to be sure, thanks to their new environment. But their type has not changed by so much as an actual breed of horses might be changed in as many generations. Note the head, the most typical and characteristic feature of this Grecian steed. Line for line it is the same head, trappings aside, that we have just seen at Nineveh. Even the defects of the Assyrian drawing are there the too small and slender face, and receding lower jaw, the tiny ear, the far too full and "chuffy" neck. Possibly no horse in nature was ever like this, but the Assyrian artist so conceives it; the Greek copies that conception; and the distorted type will be transmitted down

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the generations to the Italian of the Renaissance, to the classical painters of Spain, the Netherlands, and Germany, and France; nay, even to the artist of the 19th century. The court artist of an Oriental prince of the 9th or 10th century B.C. conceives a certain ideal; and, following him, a certain type of sculptured horse, such as the artist who carved it has never seen, steps before the chariots on Napoleon's Arc de Triomphe, in 19th-century Paris.

We have only been able to indicate some of the most important of the issues raised by modern research. Enlightening as the results have been, they are even more striking as the promise of further investigation. At the opening of the Twentieth Century the field of inquiry stretched out on all sides, and the method of cultivating it for the profit of all mankind—since the true history of man on the earth must always be of the supremest interest to intelligent people-had been brought home to us by the new treasures already at our disposal. Strangely enough, there were still obstacles-pecuniary or politicalto be faced by those expert archæologists who had best proved their title to support. But in the light of accomplished facts, it is not reasonable to suppose that a work so successfully begun will not be pushed forward further and further, till every available source of knowledge has been tapped.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.

NEW VOLUMES.

CHICAGO.

Chicago, the second city in size in the United States, situated in Cook county, state of Illinois, in 41° 50' N. lat. and 87° 34' W. long. It stretches along the west shore of Lake Michigan for nearly 30 miles. The Chicago river, which empties into the lake, is about a mile long, being formed by the junction of branches from the north-west and south-west. The main river and the branches are an important part of the harbour, vessels being docked all along the banks. A series of breakwaters protect the mouth of the river from the lake storms and make a secure basin. The rivers divide the city into three divisions, the north, south, and west sides. The streets The streets generally intersect at right angles. The total area of the city is 1903 square miles. There are 4074 miles of streets and alleys-1269-4 improved and 2804-6 unimproved. The extreme length of the city is 26 miles and the extreme breadth 14 miles. In 1880 the population numbered 503,185; in 1890, 1,099,850; and in 1900, 1,698,575. The native-born population (1900) was 1,111,463, and the foreign-born 587,112; the total coloured population was 31,435, of whom 30,150 were negroes, and the balance Chinese, Japanese, and Indians. Out of 511,048 males of voting age (21 years and over), 20,572 were illiterate (unable to write), of whom 19,336 were foreignborn. Of the total number of males of voting age, as given above, 237,688 were native-born and 273,360 were foreign-born. Of the latter number, 186,660 were naturalized, 10,398 had filed their first naturalization papers, 35,897 were aliens, and the citizenship of 40,405 was returned by the U.S. census enumerators as unknown. The number of births registered in 1900 was 29,568. The number registered is thought to be perhaps 80 per cent. of the total. The number of deaths in the census year ending 31st May 1900 was 27,533, showing a death-rate of 16.2 per thousand. In 1890 the death-rate was 19.1. As the number of births is only slightly in excess of the number of deaths, it is obvious that the growth of the city in population comes mainly from immigration.

Railways. Chicago is one of the great railway centres in the United States. Trunk lines reach east to Montreal, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore; south to Charleston, Savannah, Florida, Mobile, New Orleans, Texas; west to the Pacific by all the overland routes. Nearly all the traffic between the northern Atlantic seaboard and the Far West passes through Chicago, and the trade of the city extends in every direction. The Illinois and Michigan canal connects the Chicago river with the waters of the Mississippi for small craft, and it seems not unlikely that some day the new drainage canal will become a ship canal, thus making it possible for large vessels to ply between New Orleans and Chicago. Local transit is provided partly by the trunk railways, partly by four elevated railways, one on the south side, two on the west side, and one on the north side, all worked by electricity. The trams are operated by cables

electricity. The local lines, both elevated and tram, belong to private corporations which hold charters for a term of years from the city. One important effect of the abundant provision for local travel is seen in the concentration of business in the comparatively small area south of the main river and between the south branch and the lake. Another effect is the wide diffusion of the residential quarter, there being many areas within the city limits very sparsely built up. In consequence of the enormous value of land in the down-town district, the erection of very high buildings for business purposes has become imperative. The highest is the Masonic temple, which has 22 storeys, with a total height of 302 feet. The Monadnock, an office building, has no less than 6000 occupants, and constitutes a postal district by itself as is the case, indeed, with other such buildings.

Education.-Education, as generally in the United States, is largely in the hands of the state, but is liberally supplemented by private effort, by corporations endowed from private munificence, and by church schools. Besides the usual primary, secondary, and higher institutions, there are technical and professional schools and a variety of S. III.

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The cost of the public schools for the year ending 30th June 1900 was $7,096,674. Of this $6,295,133 came from taxation and $801,541 from the income on invested funds. In 1898 the private schools had 323 teachers and 7625 pupils, and the parochial and church schools 1301 teachers and 78,989 pupils, exclusive of numerous kindergarten and business schools. There are three universities, situated wholly or in part in Chicago-Lake Forest University, NorthWestern University, and the University of Chicago. They were founded under Presbyterian, Methodist, and Baptist auspices respectively. The academic departments of the two former are in the suburbs of Lake Forest and Evanston, the professional departments being in Chicago. Lake Forest, for the year ending June 1900, had 126 students in the college at Lake Forest, 561 in the college of dental surgery, and 364 in the college of lawtotal of 1051. North-Western University had an attendance, for the year ending June 1900, of 572 students in the college of liberal arts, 42 in the graduate school, 182 in theology, 211 in law, 413 in medicine, 235 in pharmacy, 566 in dentistry, and 292 in music, there being a total of 2358 (excluding repetitions). There were in the same departments 277 professors and instructors. The University of Chicago alluded to in the ninth edition of this work went out of existence in 1886. In 1890 a new institution of the same name (see separate heading below) was incorporated under the laws of Illinois, and was opened on 1st October 1892. Schools of law and medicine include those connected with the North-Western and Lake Forest Universities, the Rush Medical College (affiliated with the University of Chicago), the College of Physicians and Surgeons (the medical department of the University of Illinois), and several which are independent. Theological schools, besides those of the universities, are the M'Cormick Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), the Chicago Theological Seminary (Congregational), the Western Episcopal Theological Seminary, the German Lutheran Theological Seminary, and some others. The Lewis Institute, on the west side, and the Armour Institute of Technology, on the south side, both largely endowed, provide education in which technical instruction is prominent. The Chicago Institute, founded and endowed by Mrs Anita M'Cormick Blaine as an independent school for the training of teachers, is now a part of the University of Chicago. The Chicago Art Institute conducts an art school and maintains a collection of pictures, reproductions of sculpture and bronzes, and original Egyptian antiquities. The library, consisting of over 2000 volumes and 16,000 photographs, is used in connexion both with the school and with the museum. The building, which stands on the Lake Front Park and is the property of the city, cost a little over $700,000. Of this sum $200,000 was paid by the World's Columbian Exposition,

and the rest by the institute and by gifts from its friends. The art school had 1904 students in 1899-1900. The collection of pictures contains excellent examples of the works of old and modern masters. The Field Columbian Museum occupies the building in Jackson Park which was the art gallery of the Columbian Exposition of 1893. The nucleus of the collection was in large gifts from exposition exhibitors, and many additions have been made since. Besides the libraries of the various institutions of learning, there are a public library and two endowed libraries, the Newberry and the Crerar. The public library has an annual appropriation of about $276,000 from the Common Council, and has 272,000 volumes on its shelves. The Newberry Library, on the north side, possesses an endowment fund of about $2,500,000, and has 230,000 volumes. It is especially rich in Americana. The John Crerar Library has an endowment fund of $3,500,000, an income (for 1900) of $157,285, and 70,406 books. books. This library is limited to books on science (including the social sciences). The library of the University of Chicago has 337,915 volumes, and that of the Chicago Law Institute (which is accommodated in the Court House) has upwards of 37,000 titles. The Chicago orchestra, mainly supported by voluntary contributions, is devoted to rendering classical music.

Religion and Charity.-There are in Chicago 775 churches, or parishes, representing 36 distinct ecclesiastical organizations. The Baptists have 60 parishes, the Congregationalists 83, the Episcopalians 42, the Lutherans 87, the Methodist Episcopalians 145, the Presbyterians 48, and the Roman Catholics 118. There are also upwards of a hundred missions maintained by the various churches. There are 45 hospitals and several infirmaries and dispensaries in the city. The Cook County Hospital belongs to the county. The others are in the main supported by churches or by private benevolence. Provision is made for indigent patients as well as for those who are able to pay for treatment. There are 55 asylums and homes for the destitute, for orphans, for the aged, the erring, for those afflicted with incurable disease, for the friendless, and the like. Of these the Cook County Insane Asylum and the Cook County Poor House belong to the public. The rest, like the hospitals, are supported by churches or by private benevolence. Chicago has its full share of temporary distress, of habitual mendicancy, of economic inefficiency, of vicious poverty. The city is, however, well equipped with the customary institutions for dealing with such cases. Moreover, to prevent the overlapping of charitable work, and also as a precaution against fraud, there has been organized since the World's Fair the bureau of charities. For this purpose the city is divided into districts, in each of which there is a local organization, under the general direction of a central committee. All cases are registered, new cases being examined in detail. Nearly 50,000 family records are on file in the bureau registration. During 1899, 11,274 applications were made for the services of the bureau. About 25 per cent. of these were sent to the bureau for investigation by co-operating agencies.

Commerce and Industry.-Chicago is a centre of manufacturing and commerce on the largest scale. Among the leading industries may be enumerated meat-packing, agricultural implements, railroad cars, printing, electrical apparatus, brewing, bicycles, pianos, mill machinery, and shipbuilding. Chicago is the greatest grain market in the world. Some idea of the extent of the industries of the city may be obtained from the following statistics for 1899. The receipts of live stock amounted to 14,623,435 head, valued at $233,711,180, and the shipments were 3,006,532 head. There were also shipped during the same

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