succession), and ceded Gibraltar and Minorca to Eng- | land; the Dutch received a small accession of territory; and the duke of Savoy obtained Sicily, with the title of king-afterwards (1720) exchanged for the island of Sardinia. The Austrian monarchy now embraced about 190,000 square miles of territory, with nearly 29,000,000 of inhabitants. Its annual revenue was between 13,000,000 and 14,000,000 florins, and its army consisted of 130,000 men.

Austria next became involved in a war with the Turks, and in 1716 Prince Eugene set out at the head of an army against them. The result was a series of splendid successes, which led to a peace signed at Passarowitz (1718), by which Austria received a considerable accession of territory. Disaffection still continued to subsist between Spain and Austria, which led to repeated negotiations on the part of the other powers to preserve peace. Charles being without heirs-male, was desirous of securing the succession to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, and with this view he framed the celebrated Pragmatic Sanction, and it became his great object to get the assent of the other powers to this arrangement. England and almost all the other powers, except France, Spain, and Sardinia, acceded to it in 1731. In 1733 the emperor became involved in a war with France on behalf of Augustus III. of Saxony, who had been elected king of Poland. France supported the claims of Stanislaus Leczinski, and received the aid of Spain and Sardinia. The war was carried on principally in Italy, where Austria was driven out of most of her possessions, and was glad to sue for peace. By this treaty Augustus was confirmed on the throne of Poland; but Austria was obliged to cede to Stanislaus the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, to be afterwards transferred to France; Don Carlos was placed on the throne of the Two Sicilies, and the grand duchy of Tuscany was bestowed on the duke of Lorraine, the emperor receiving as compensation Parma and Placentia; and France, and afterwards Spain and Sardinia, acceded to the Pragmatic Sanction. War again broke out with the Turks, and Prince Eugene being now no more, the Austrians were repeatedly beaten and expelled from one stronghold after another, till, by the peace of Belgrade (1739), the emperor was compelled to yield up almost all that the arms of Eugene had formerly gained for him. The emperor died on the 20th October 1740, and his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, who was married to the duke of Lorraine or Lothringen (afterwards archduke of Tuscany), assumed the government. Immediately counter-claims were advanced on all sides. The elector of Bavaria claimed to be rightful heir to the kingdom of Bohemia; the elector of Saxony and king of Poland, and also the king of Spain, claimed the entire succession; the king of Sardinia laid claim to the duchy of Milan, and Frederick II. of Prussia to the province of Silesia. France espoused the cause of Bavaria, while England alone came forward to the assistance of the queen, and the Hungarians, now united and loyal, willingly recruited her armies. Aided by France and Saxony, the elector of Bavaria took possession of Bohemia, and was proclaimed king in 1741, and the following year he was elected emperor under the title of Charles VII. The king of Prussia marched suddenly into Silesia and took possession of that country. The elector of Bavaria, aided by French troops, next invaded Austria, and even threatened Vienna. The queen fled to Presburg and convoked the Hungarian diet. She appeared in the midst of the assembly with her infant son Joseph in her arms, and appealed to them for protection and help. A burst of enthusiasm followed, and a powerful Hungarian army was speedily at her service. The French and Bavarians were soon driven out of the archduchy.

A

Maria

battle was fought between the Austrians under the prince of Lorraine and the Prussians under Frederick, at Czaslau (17th May 1742), in which the former were defeated, and this was followed by the peace of Breslau (11th June), by which Prussia acquired possession of Upper and Lower Silesia (excepting the towns of Troppau and Jägerndorf, and the mountains of Silesia) and the county of Glatz. Austria now turned her arms against the French and Bavarians, the former of whom were driven out of the country. In 1744 the king of Prussia, jealous of the success attending the Austrians, again took the field against them in support of the emperor. He marched into Bohemia and took Prague, but subsequently was forced to retreat; and the death of the emperor Charles on 20th January 1745 changed the aspect of affairs. Theresa's husband was in September elected emperor under the title of Francis I., and after some more fighting, a peace was concluded with Prussia at Dresden, by which the king was confirmed in the possession of Silesia. The war with France was prosecuted for some time longer in the Netherlands and in Italy with varying success, but ultimately peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, in October 1748. Austria gave up the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla to Don Philip, son of the king of Spain, and several districts of Milan to Sardinia; Prussia was confirmed in the possession of Silesia and Glatz; while Maria Theresa was recognised as rightful monarch of Austria. After having acquired peace, and been thus confirmed in her possessions, her great desire was to recover Silesia from Frederick, whose conduct towards her had sunk deep into her heart. She directed her attention to strengthening and improving her army, and to forming alliances with the other states against the Prussian king, particularly with Russia and Saxony. In 1755 war broke out in North America between France and England, and in view of its becoming more general England solicited the aid of Austria, but without success. This naturally led to a union between England and Prussia, while France allied herself with Austria and Russia.

In July 1756, Frederick despatched a messenger to Seven Vienna to ascertain the meaning of the large forces Years' War. assembled in Bohemia and Moravia. Receiving an evasive answer, he at once marched an army of 60,000 men into Saxony, took Dresden, and made himself master of the country, the Saxon army of only about 17,000 men being shut up in a strong position, but ill provisioned, between Pirna and Königstein. An Austrian army, under the command of Marshal Browne, advanced from Bohemia to the relief of Saxony, but was met by Frederick. A battle took place at Lowositz (1st October), which, though not decisive, ended in the retreat of the Austrians; and the famished Saxon army, after an ineffectual attempt to effect a retreat to Bohemia, laid down their arms. This ended the first campaign, and both sides did their utmost to prepare for renewing hostilities the following year. The empress strengthened her forces in Bohemia, and the 1757. imperial diet conceded an army of 60,000 men to assist her. France engaged to send an army of 80,000 or 100,000 men into Germany, and Russia set in motion an army of 100,000 men against Prussia. In all, the allies were estimated to muster about 500,000 men, while Frederick could scarcely raise 200,000 of his own, his auxiliaries (English, Hanoverians, &c.) probably amounting to about 40,000 more. Frederick renewed the war by marching an army into Bohemia, where, on 6th May, he gained a victory over the Austrians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, in the neighbourhood of Prague, and then laid siege to that city. General Daun, at the head of an Austrian army, advanced to the relief of the city, and the king set out to meet him. The encounter took place at Kolin (18th June), and the

Prussians, being much inferior in numbers, were beaten with great slaughter. Frederick was compelled at once to raise the siege and to evacuate Bohemia. In honour of this victory the empress instituted the military order of Maria Theresa. It had also the effect of inspiring the allies with fresh courage. The Russians invaded the kingdom of Prussia; the Swedes entered Pomerania; and two French armies crossed the Rhine in order to attack Hesse and Hanover and then march into Prussia. One of these armies, under the command of Prince Soubise, advanced towards Thuringia, in order to form a junction with the imperial forces under the prince of Hildburghausen, while Marshal d'Estrées, who commanded the larger French army, entered Hanover, and through the incapacity of his opponent, gained an easy victory over the Anglo-Germanic army, under the duke of Cumberland, near Hastenbeck, on the Weser (26th July). The duke afterwards completed his disgrace by agreeing to disband his troops and give up Hanover, Hesse, Brunswick, and the whole country between the Weser and the Rhine, to the French. The other French army effected a union with the imperial troops of Thuringia, and made preparations for driving the Prussians out of Saxony. Frederick, however, determined to meet them, and after a series of marches and countermarches the two armies came together near Rossbach. The Prussian army amounted to about 22,000 men, while that of the French and Austrians numbered nearly 60,000. Frederick's troops were encamped upon a height, and the allies, when they advanced to the attack, were suddenly met by such a tremendous fire that they were thrown into confusion and unable to recover themselves. In less than half an hour the day was decided (5th November 1757). The allies had 1200 killed and more than 7000 taken prisoners, while the loss of the Prussians scarcely exceeded 500 in killed and wounded. At this time the imperialists had entered Silesia and there gained several advantages over the Prussians, who were at length driven to the walls of Breslau. Here a battle was fought (22d November) in which the Austrians were victorious, and the city itself soon after surrendered to the conquerors. Frederick now made what haste he could to retrieve his fortunes in this quarter, and met the Austrian army, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, in a plain near the village of Leuthen. The Austrians numbered about 80,000 men, while the Prussians did not exceed 30,000, yet by the skilful disposal of his troops and the celerity of his movements Frederick again gained a complete victory (5th December). The field was covered with slain, and it is estimated that about 20,000 surrendered themselves prisoners. Breslau was speedily retaken, and the Austrians driven out of Silesia.

The English were very indignant at the treaty entered into by the duke of Cumberland, and another army was speedily raised and placed under the command of Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, who commenced the campaign of 1758 by suddenly attacking the French in their winter quarters. In a few weeks he succeeded in driving them out of the country, pursued them across the Rhine, and attacked them furiously at Crefeld, where they were completely routed.

While Field-Marshal Daun, who had received the command of the Austrian army, was waiting the attack of Frederick in Bohemia, the latter, by forced marches, entered Moravia and laid siege to Olmütz. The town, however, defended itself with the greatest bravery, and the Prussians were compelled to raise the siege. By this time, Daun having blocked up Frederick's retreat into Silesia, the Prussian army was marched suddenly northward into Bohemia, and attacked the Russians who had invaded Brandenburg. After a desperate battle the latter were defeated with great slaughter at Zorndorf (26th

Frederick

August), and compelled to retreat into Poland. now entered Saxony, where his brother Prince Henry was hard pressed by the Austrians. Thereupon Daun retired to a strong position in Lusatia, and Frederick took up a position near him, little thinking that Daun would attack him. Early in the morning of the 14th of October, however, the Austrians suddenly fell upon him at the village of Hochkirchen, and in the confusion and darkness the slaughter was terrible. Frederick lost several of his best generals, including Prince Francis of Brunswick, Prince Maurice of Dessau, and Field-Marshal Keith, with about 9000 of his soldiers. His camp, baggage, and ammunition also fell into the hands of the Austrians. The victory, however, was productive of little material results; Frederick retreated into Silesia, while the Austrians, after ineffectual attempts on Leipsic, Torgau, and Dresden, retired to Bohemia for the winter. The Austrian army was again largely reinforced, and every preparation made for renewing hostilities with vigour. The following year (1759) Duke Ferdinand found 1759. himself hard pressed by two French armies under the Duke de Broglie and the Marshal de Contades. He sustained a defeat at Bergen (12th April), but afterwards gained a signal victory at Minden (1st August), and compelled the French to retreat. Daun, waiting the approach of the Russians, did not take the field till the beginning of May, when, on their advance towards the Oder, he moved into Lusatia. In June, Dohna, who was sent to check the advance of the Russians, was forced to retreat, and, on the 23d July, Wedel, who succeeded him in the command, was totally routed near Züllichau. The Russians then marched on to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where they were joined by 18,000 Austrians under Marshal Loudon. Frederick hastened with what troops he could collect to give battle to the combined army. The latter took up a strong position on the heights near Kunersdorf, and there they were attacked early on the 12th of August by the king. The Prussians numbered about 50,000, while the Russians and Austrians amounted to 90,000. The battle raged long and furiously, and the issue was long doubtful, but at length the Russians were giving way on all sides, and victory was about to declare for the Prussians, when unexpectedly the Austrians made a furious attack upon them, threw them into confusion, and in a short time drove them from the field. Frederick lost in this action 20,000 of his bravest troops, and the loss on the side of the allies was not less than 24,000 men killed and wounded. In the meantime the Austrians overran Saxony, took Torgau, Wittenberg, and Leipsic, and invested Dresden, which, after a spirited defence, surrendered when an army of relief was close at hand. But Frederick was speedily in the field again at the head of a new army, and, by dint of skilful manœuvring and cutting off supplies, he succeeded in harassing the two armies, and compelled the Russians again to retire into Poland. An army of 13,000 men, under General Fink, attacked the rear of the Austrian army near Maxen, but after a brief but sanguinary conflict they were defeated and taken prisoners. Daun took up his winter quarters in Saxony, notwithstanding every effort of Frederick to dispossess him.

The imperial troops had been very successful during the last campaign, and were in good condition to renew the fight, while the Prussians had sustained great losses, were dispirited, and could only muster about 80,000 fighting men, and these no longer veterans, but in great measure raw recruits. In the campaign of 1760 Frederick was himself to 1760. conduct the war in Saxony, Prince Henry was to protect the marches against the Russians, and General Fouquet was to defend Silesia against the Austrians under Loudon. On 23d June, 8000 Prussians, under Fouquet, were surrounded and attacked on all sides by 30,000 Austrians at Landshut,

1792.

France.

broke out into open revolt in 1789. This, together with an unsuccessful war in which he had engaged with Russia against Turkey, is understood to have preyed upon his over-sensitive mind, and caused his death on 20th February 1790. He was, says Mr Carlyle, "a man of very high qualities, and much too conscious of them; a man of ambition without bounds; one of those fatal men-fatal to themselves first of all-who mistake half genius for whole; and rush on the second step without having made the first." He was succeeded by his brother Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, who by his moderation and firmness was successful in restoring peace to the country, and in quelling the insurrection in the Netherlands. He also made peace with the Porte. The misfortunes of his sister Maria Antoinette and her husband, Louis XVI. of France, led him to enter into an alliance with Prussia against the Revolutionists, but he died before the war broke out (1st March 1792). He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who had hardly ascended the throne when he found War with himself involved in a war with France. Hostilities commenced on 28th April with an attempted invasion of Flanders by the French, but their undisciplined troops were speedily routed and put to flight. A combined army of 50,000 Prussians, under the command of the duke of Brunswick, and 15,000 Austrians under General Clairfait, besides about 20,000 French, soon after crossed the French frontier, took Longwy and Verdun, and marched on Paris. In the meantime Dumouriez was actively engaged in collecting an army, and soon found himself in a condition to meet them. A series of engagements took place without any decided result, beyond checking the advance of the allied troops, who were now also suffering very severely from sickness and famine. It was therefore deemed prudent to retire, and Verdun and Longwy were soon after retaken. Dumouriez next invaded the Netherlands with an army of 100,000 men, to oppose which the Austrian army only amounted to 40,000. A battle took place at Jemappes on the 6th of November, in which the Austrians fought with heroic bravery, and the contest was long doubtful, but the superior numbers of the French carried the day. The loss on both sides was very great; and soon after the whole of the Austrian Netherlands, with the exception of Luxemburg, was in the hands of the French. The commencement of the campaign of 1793 was distinguished by a series of brilliant victories gained by the allies in the Netherlands. Dumouriez was defeated at Aldenhoven, and again in a great battle at Neerwinden (18th March). Soon after, afraid of falling into the hands of the Jacobins in Paris, he passed over to the allies. His successor, General Dampierre, was defeated and slain on the plains of Famars, and the allies became masters of Valenciennes and Condé. Towards the end of the campaign, however, the republican troops were successful in a number of engagements. At the commencement of the year 1794, the Austrians, Dutch, English, and Hanoverians united their forces in the Netherlands under the command of the prince of Coburg, and the Emperor Francis himself joined the camp, in order by his presence to encourage the troops. In April the allies were successful at Cateau and at Landrecies, and took that town; but their good fortune then forsook them. Clairfait was attacked singly at Kortryk by Pichegru, and forced to yield to superior numbers; and the allies under the prince of Coburg were attacked by him at Tournay (22d May), when an extremely long and bloody, but undecisive, battle was fought. The Austrian troops were now greatly dispirited; and, on the 26th June they were defeated by General Jourdan at Fleurus. This was followed by other disasters, so that all Flanders was soon in the hands of the French. Pichegru, pursuing his victorious career, next invaded Holland, which, before the end

1793.

1794.

of the year, was transformed into a republic. In the begin- 1795. ning of 1795 Prussia abandoned the cause of the allies, and concluded a treaty of peace with the French republic at Basle (5th April), and was joined therein by Hanover and Hesse Cassel, so that Austria and England were left alone to prosecute the war. For some months a cessation of hostilities took place between the contending parties; but on the 6th of September the French army under Jourdan suddenly crossed the Rhine near Düsseldorf, invested that town, and drove the Austrians before it over the Maine. Clairfait, however, reassembled his troops behind the latter river, and attacked the French at Höchst, near Frankfort, and completely defeated them (11th October), so that they were obliged to recross the Rhine. In the meantime Pichegru had crossed the river with another army, near Mannheim, and took possession of that town. Wurmser, who was sent for its relief, arrived too late for that purpose, but attacked the French army near it, put them to flight, and compelled them to recross the Rhine, leaving a garrison of 8000 men to defend the town, which, after a vigorous siege, surrendered to the Austrians. The French, undismayed by these failures, were only stimulated to greater efforts; and the following 1796, year they sent out three armies against Austria, one under Jourdan towards the Lower Rhine, another under Moreau towards the Upper Rhine, and a third into Italy. In the end of May the French army under Jourdan crossed the Lower Rhine, and gained some successes, but was afterwards attacked by the Archduke Charles (16th June), and forced to recross the river. Moreau soon after effected his passage over the Upper Rhine at Strasburg, defeated the Austrians in several partial engagements, and reduced the circle of Swabia to subjection. Jourdan again pushed forward his troops, and took Frankfort by bombardment, but was defeated with great loss by the archduke at Amberg (24th August), and again at Wurzburg (3d September). Moreau had in the meantime continued his advance into Bavaria, but was ultimately obliged to effect a retreat, which he carried out with great skill, suffering comparatively little loss, and recrossing the Rhine on 20th October. But a different fate was attending the army in Italy, under the command of a young officer, who afterwards became world-famous for his generalship, namely, Bonaparte. By the promptitude of his movements, and the suddenness of his attacks, he completely overcame and separated the army of the Sardinians from that of the Austrians, and forced the Sardinian king to sign a treaty of peace. He then turned his arms against the Austrians, defeated them in several engagements, and made himself master of the whole of Lombardy, except Mantua. Wurmser was now summoned from Germany with an army of 30,000 men, which raised the Austrian force to about 60,000; while opposed to them were about 55,000 French. Instead, however, of advancing in one body, the Austrians were divided into two columns, which advanced by different routes, a mistake of which Bonaparte did not fail to take advantage. One division of 20,000 men was attacked and compelled to retreat towards the mountains, while Wurmser with the other division entered Mantua. Leaving that city he sustained a double defeat at Lonato and Castiglione (3d August); and, being again severely beaten at Medola (5th August), he was forced to seek shelter in the mountains of Tyrol. Having received reinforcements, however, he again advanced in divided columns, one of which was defeated at Roveredo, the other, under himself, near Bassano. He took the road to Mantua with the remains of his army, and reached that town after a brilliant victory over a body of French troops that had been sent to intercept him. Meanwhile the Austrians collected another army of 40,000 men under Alvinzi, who, after a series of successes, gained a decided victory over Bonaparte at