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the work to which he has been trained. Auburn also possesses a Presbyterian theological seminary, founded in 1821, an academy, five public free schools, sixteen churches, an orphan asylum, two opera houses, and several newspaper offices. The water-power supplied by the outlet of the neighbouring lake of Owasco is utilised in a number of manufactories. Cotton and woollen goods, carpets, agricultural implements and other tools, paper, flour, and beer are the principal products.

AUBUSSON, a town of France, situated in a picturesque valley on the banks of the Creuse, in the department to which that river gives its name. It is said to have owed its origin to a number of Saracens, who, having escaped from the battle in which their nation was defeated by Charles Martel, were enticed by the beauty and convenience of the spot to establish themselves permanently there. It has long been famous for its carpets and tapestry, the art of weaving which was probably derived from those Eastern settlers, and it also manufactures common cotton and woollen goods, leather, tobacco, &c. Population, 6625. AUCH, the ancient Climberrum or Augusta Auscorum, one of the most ancient cities of France, capital of the department of Gers. In Cæsar's time this was the chief town of the Ausci. In the 8th century it became the capital of Gascony; and when that district was divided into countships, was the capital of Armagnac. The site of the modern town does not exactly coincide with that of the ancient, being on the opposite (the left) bank of the river Gers. Auch was probably destroyed by the Saracens about 724 a.d., and was afterwards rebuilt in its present picturesque situation on the slope of a hill. On the opposite side of the river, and occupying the site of the ancient city, is a considerable suburb, which is connected with the town by a bridge; and communication between the lower and the upper town is afforded by long flights of steps. The streets, though narrow, are generally well built, and a fine promenade in the upper part of the town gives a magnificent view of the surrounding country. Auch is the seat of an archbishopric, which was founded in the 4th century, and gave, till the Revolution, the title of Primate of Aquitania to the holder of the see. It has tribunals of commerce and primary jurisdiction, a royal college, an agricultural society, a theological seminary, with a museum and an extensive library, a theatre, &c. The cathedral of St Mary, one of the most magnificent in France, was commenced in the reign of Charles VIII. (1489), and finished in that of Louis XV. It exhibits several styles of architecture, contains many elegant monuments, and is adorned with fine stained-glass windows and carved woodwork. The préfecture, formerly the archiepiscopal palace, is a vast and noble edifice. The principal manufactures are hats, various kinds of linen and cotton stuffs, leather, &c., and there is a considerable trade, especially in the brandies of Armagnac. Population in 1872, 13,087.

AUCHTERARDER, a town and parish of Scotland, county of Perth, 15 miles W.S.W. of Perth. The town consists of a single street about a mile in length. It was formerly a royal burgh, but is now disfranchised. Near it is an ancient castle, said to have been a hunting-seat of Malcolm Canmore. It was in connection with this parish that the ecclesiastical dispute arose which led to the Disruption in the Church of Scotland in 1843. Population of town in 1871, 2599.

AUCHTERMUCHTY, a royal burgh and parish of Scotland, county of Fife, 8 miles W.S.W. of Cupar. The town is irregularly built on an elevated site, and is divided by the Leverspool, a rapid streamlet which runs down its centre. The manufacture of linen is carried on. Population of burgh in 1871, 1082.

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AUCKLAND, a province of New Zealand, consisting of the northern portion of North Island, and bounded for the most part on the S. by the 39th parallel of latitude. In the N.W. it runs out into a peninsula between 200 and 300 miles in length, with a very irregular coast-line, especially on the eastern side. The total area of the province is about 17,000,000 acres, of which nearly 11,275,000 are still in possession of the Maoris, who are, however, continually disposing of their claims to the Government. surface of the province is of a very varied character, presenting wide and fertile plains, stretches of fern-heath and swamp, mountain ranges and isolated peaks, tracts of richly-wooded jungle, rocky plateaus, and districts of strange volcanic activity. All round the coast there are a large number of natural harbours, and the most of the interior is traversed by navigable streams. The principal river-system is that of the Waikato (or Rushing Water), which rises in the Taupo Lake, in the south of the province, forces its way though an extensive rocky table-land, flows onwards for about 35 miles through a rich but marshy basin, joins its waters with the Waipa (or Peaceful Water), its largest tributary, cuts a passage through the Taupiri range, and after traversing the fertile expanse of its lower basin, turns abruptly to the W. and falls into the sea about 35 miles S. of the city of Auckland. The value of the Waikato as a commercial highway is greatly lessened by its mouth being encumbered with sandbanks, that prevent the entrance of ships. To the E. of this river lies the valley of the Thames, fertile and well watered by several streams, and still further eastward extends the versant of the Bay of Plenty. The course of settlement has hitherto advanced for the most part along the valleys of the Waikato and the Thames,-Cambridge, about 104 miles S. of the city of Auckland, being the frontier station in the former, and Tapapa, a little further to the S. in the latter. Nearly the whole of the N.W. peninsula is occupied by a scattered population, and various flourishing townships are situated along the coast on all sides. In 1873 there were 3842 holdings in the province, and about 225,000 acres had been broken up. Hitherto the cultivation of the cereals has not proved sufficiently remunerative, though climate and soil are equally favourable, and the attention of the farmer has principally been turned to the rearing of the various descriptions of live stock, more especially sheep. The natural wealth of the province consists principally in its gold and timber. Coal has been found in several districts, and a few mines have been successfully worked, as Kawakawa (at the Bay of Islands), Drury, and Whangarei; but the most important deposits are comparatively undisturbed. It is believed that iron may eventually be found in considerable quantities, and various minerals have been pointed out in the interior by scientific travellers. The chief seats of the gold-diggings are the Coromandel peninsula and the Thames valley. quantity exported in 1871 was valued at £1,888,708. The most important timber tree is the kauri-pine, which is peculiar to Auckland, and does not grow further south than 37° 30′. It is of magnificent dimensions, and valuable, not only as the most extensively used building material, but on account of the fossil gum which is found wherever the kauri forest has been. This gum forms one of the chief articles of export, about 14,277 tons being the amount in the three years 1870, 1871, and 1872. There are various other trees of considerable value, such as the rimu, the kahikatca, and the totara. The timber trade, both domestic and foreign, is increasing in importance, and shipbuilding is extensively carried on. There are large districts overgrown with the phormium or New Zealand flax, and the right to cut it on the waste lands is granted by the Government at a low price. In 1873, 1497 tons

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of the prepared fibre, valued at £27,783, were exported, | besides a considerable quantity of manufactured rope. Those great necessities of commerce, roads and railways, are being constructed in various directions. A line is in course of formation from Auckland up the valley of the Waikato, as far as Newcastle, at the confluence of the Waipa, and a survey has been made for about 20 miles further. A road runs from Bowen, on the Bay of Plenty, across the country, through the wonderful lake district, with its boiling fountains, steam geysers, and mud-baths, round by the east coast of Taupo Lake, and over the highlands to Napier, in Hawke's Bay province. The history of Auckland was for long the history of New Zealand, and will be fully treated under that heading. (See NEW ZEALAND.)

- For a descriptive account of a large part of the province, the reader is referred to Dr Hochstetter's valuable works, especially to his New Zealand, 1863. A very graphic sketch of some of the natural curiosities is furnished by Anthony Trollope in his Australia and New Zealand, vol. ii. AUCKLAND, the capital of the above province, is finely situated on an isthmus in the N. W. peninsula, on the S. shore of the Waitemata harbour, which is formed by an inlet of the Hauraki Gulf. Lat. 36° 51′ S., long. 174° 50'. On the other side of the isthmus lies the harbour and town of Manukau, which serves as a supplementary port to the city. Auckland was founded in 1840 by Governor Hobson, and became a burgh in 1851. It was till 1865 the seat of the Government, which is now situated at Wellington. The city has a fine appearance, especially from the harbour, and is surrounded by a number of flourishing suburban villages, with several of which it is connected by railway. Among the public buildings in the city and neighbourhood may be mentioned the governor's house, the cathedral, St John's Episcopal college, about 4 miles distant, the Auckland college and grammar school, the Episcopal grammar school, in the suburb of Parnell, the provincial hospital, the provincial lunatic asylum, and the orphanage at Parnell. A wharf, 1690 feet in length, has been built opposite the centre of the city, and affords excellent accommodation for the gradually increasing traffic of the harbour, In 1872, 170 non-colonial vessels, with a tonnage of 54,257 tons, entered the port, besides a large number of coasting ships. There are registered at Auckland 167 sailing vessels and 20 steamships, most of them of provincial build. The population, which was 7989 in 1862, had increased by 1871 to 12,937 (with the suburbs to 18,000), and is now estimated at about 21,000.

AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group discovered in 1806 by Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler "Ocean," about 180 miles S. of New Zealand, in lat. 50° 24', long. 166° 7' E. The islands, of volcanic origin, are very fertile, and are covered with forest. They were granted to the Messrs Enderby by the British Government as a whaling station, but the establishment was abandoned in 1852. (See Raynal's Auckland Islands, 1874.)

AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, BARON, an eminent diplomatist and politician, third son of Sir Robert Eden, Bart., of West Auckland, was born in 1744. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and adopted the profession of the law. At the age of twenty-seven he resigned his practice at the bar, and engaged in political life as under-secretary to Lord Suffolk. By the favour of the duke of Marlborough, he obtained a seat for Woodstock, and soon gave proof of his ability in the House. He attached himself to Lord North's party, and after serving under Lord Carlisle on the unsuccessful commission to the colonists in America, acted as secretary to that nobleman, when he held the post of viceroy in Ireland. During this time he had obtained the offices of director and auditor of Greenwich Hospital, which

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probably yielded him an income sufficient for carrying on his political career. In 1783 he took a leading part in negotiating the remarkable coalition between North and Fox, and was rewarded by being made vice-treasurer of Ireland. In 1784 he opposed Pitt's proposal for commercial reciprocity with Ireland, but in so doing contrived to separate himself to some extent from his own party, and shortly after accepted from Pitt the office of plenipotentiary at Paris. Here he successfully negotiated the important commercial treaty with France; and after his appointment as ambassador to Spain, he rendered valuable service in settling the dispute between the British and French Governments with regard to the affairs of Holland. 1789 he was made an Irish peer, with the title of Baron Auckland, and in 1793 he was raised to the British peerage as Baron Auckland, of West Auckland, Durham. For three years, 1798-1801, he held office as postmaster-general. He died suddenly in 1814. In 1776 he married the sister of the first earl of Minto, by whom he had a large family. Besides numerous pamphlets on political matters of the day, Lord Auckland wrote a treatise on the Principles of the Penal Law, 1771. His political conduct has been frequently censured; he was a skilful diplomatist, and as a statesman was specially remarkable for his clear grasp of economic principles. His Journal and Correspondence, 4 vols. 1860-1862, published by his son, the bishop of Bath and Wells, throws considerable light on the political history of his time.

AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF, GovernorGeneral of India, born 20th August 1784, was the second son of the subject of the preceding notice. He completed his education at Oxford, and was admitted to the bar in 1809. His elder brother was drowned in the Thames in the following year; and in 1814, on the death of his father, he took his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland. He supported the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In 1834 he held office for a few months as first lord of the Admiralty, and in 1835 he was appointed Governor-General of India. He proved himself to be a painstaking and laborious legislator, and devoted himself specially to the improvement of native schools, and the expansion of the commercial industry of the nation committed to his care. These useful labours were interrupted in 1838 by the hostile movements of the Persians, which excited the fears not only of the Anglo-Indian Government but of the home authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war in Afghanistan, and on the 1st October 1838, published at Simla his famous manifesto. The early operations were crowned with success, and the Governor-General received the title of Earl of Auckland. But reverses followed quickly, and in the ensuing campaigns the British troops suffered the most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double mortification of seeing his policy a complete failure, and of being superseded before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of 1841 he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and returned to England in the following year. In 1846 he was made first lord of the Admiralty, which office he held until his death, 1st January 1849. He died unmarried, and the earldom became extinct.

AUCTION, a mode of selling property by offering it to the highest bidder in a public competition. By 8 Vict. c. 15, the uniform duty of £10 per annum is imposed on every licence to carry on the business of auctioneer, but duties on sales by auction are abolished. It is the duty of an auctioneer to sell for the best price he can obtain, and his authority cannot be delegated to another unless by special permission of his employer. The auctioneer's name must be exhibited on some conspicuous place during the

sale, under a penalty of £20. Sales by auction usually take place under certain conditions, which it is the duty of the auctioneer to read to the bidders before the sale begins. To complete a sale by auction there must be a bidding by, or on behalf of, a person capable of making a contract, and an acceptance thereof by the auctioneer, and until the bidding is accepted both vendor and bidder are free, and may retract if they choose. If due notice is given, an agent may be employed to bid on behalf of the seller, but the employment of several bidders is improper, and if the sale is declared to be without reserve, any bidding on the behalf of the seller will vitiate the sale. Puffing, it has been said, is illegal, even if there be only one puffer. On the other hand, any hindrance to a free sale, either by a bidder deterring competitors from offering against him, or by an engagement among the competitors to refrain from bidding, in order to keep down the price of the goods and then share the profit, is a fraud upon the vendor. Two persons, however, may agree not to bid against each other. Auctioneers are entitled by their licence to act as appraisers also. AUDÆUS, or AUDIUS, a reformer of the 4th century, by birth a Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from the Syrian clergy for his fearless censure of their irregular lives, and was expelled from the church. He was afterwards banished into Scythia, where he gained many followers and established the monastic system. He died there at an advanced age, about 370 A.D. The Audæans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as the Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing to the Deity a human shape. They appear to have founded this opinion on Genesis i. 26.

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AUDE, a southern department of France, forming part of the old province of Languedoc, bounded on the E. by the Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Hérault and Tarn, N. W. by Upper Garonne, W. by Ariége, and S. by that of Eastern Pyrenees. It lies between lat. 42° 40′ and 34° 30' N., and is 80 miles in length from E. to W., and 60 miles in breadth from N. to S. Area, 2341 square miles. The department of Aude is traversed on its western boundary from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which unites the Pyrenees with the Southern Cevennes; and its northern frontier is occupied by the Black Mountains, the most western part of the Cevennes chain. The Corbières, a branch of the Pyrenees, runs in a S.W. and N.E. direction along the southern district. The Aude, its principal river, has almost its entire course in the department. Its principal affluents on the left are the Fresquel, Orbiel, Argent-Double, and Cesse; on the right, the Guette, Salse, and Orbieu. The canal of Languedoc, which unites the Atlantic with the Mediterranean, traverses the department from E. to W. The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagunes, the chief of which are those of Bages, Sigean, Narbonne, Palme, and Leucate. The climate is variable, and often sudden in its alterations. The wind from the N.W., known as the Cers, blows with great violence, and the sea breeze is often laden with pestilential effluvia from the lagunes. Various kinds of wild animals, as the chamois, bear, wild boar, wolf, fox, and badger, inhabit the mountains and forests; game of all kinds is plentiful; and the coast and lagunes abound in fish. Mines of iron, copper, lead, manganese, cobalt, and antimony exist in the department; and, besides the beautiful marbles of Cascastel and Caunes, there are quarries of lithographic stone, gypsum, limestone, and slate. The coal mines are for the most part abandoned. The mountains contain many mineral springs, both cold and thermal. The agriculture of the department is in a very flourishing condition. The meadows are extensive and well watered, and are pastured by numerous flocks and herds. The grain

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| produce, consisting mainly of wheat, oats, rye, and Indian corn, considerably exceeds the consumption, and the vineyards yield an abundant supply of both white and red wines. Olives and almonds are also extensively cultivated, and the honey of Aude is much esteemed. Besides important manufactures of woollen and cotton cloths, combs, jet ornaments, and casks, there are paper-mills, distilleries, tanneries, and extensive iron and salt works. The chief town is Carcassonne, and the department is divided into the four arrondissements of Carcassonne, Limoux, Narbonne, and Castelnaudary. Population in 1872, 285,927. AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a distinguished French naturalist and artist, was born at Rochefort in 1759. studied painting and drawing at Paris, and gained considerable reputation as a miniature painter. In 1787 he was employed to make drawings of some objects in a natural history collection, and was also a contributor in the preparation of the plates for Olivier's Histoire des Insectes. He thus acquired a taste for the study of natural history, and devoted himself with great eagerness to the new pursuit. In 1800 appeared his first original work, L'Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des Makis, et des Galéopithèques, illustrated by 62 folio plates, drawn and engraved by himself. The colouring in these plates was unusually beautiful, and was laid on by a method devised by the author himself. Audebert died in 1800, but he had left complete materials for another great work, Histoire des Colibris, des Oiseaux-Mouches, des Jacamares, et des Promerops, which was published in 1802. 200 copies were printed in folio, 100 in large quarto, and 15 were printed with the whole text in letters of gold. Another work, left unfinished, was also published after the author's death, L'Histoire des Grimpereaux, et des Oiseaux de Paradis. The last two works also appeared together in two volumes with the title Oiseaux dorés ou à reflets metalliques, 1802.

AUDITOR, a person appointed to examine the accounts kept by the financial officers of the Crown, public corporations, or private persons, and to certify as to their accuracy. The multifarious statutes regulating the audit of public accounts have been superseded by the 29 and 30 Vict. c. 39, which gives power to the Queen to appoint a "comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to examine and verify the accounts prepared by the different departments of the public service. In examining accounts of the appropriation of the several supply grants, the comptroller and auditor-general "shall ascertain first whether the payments which the account department has charged to the grant are supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second, whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose or purposes for which such grant was intended to provide." The Treasury may also submit certain other accounts to the audit of the comptrollergeneral. All public moneys payable to the Exchequer are to be paid to the "account of Her Majesty's Exchequer " at the Bank of England, and daily returns of such payments must be forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly accounts of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are to be prepared and transmitted to the comptroller, who, in case of any deficiency in the consolidated fund, may certify to the bank to make advances. The accounts of local boards, poor-law unions, &c., must be passed in a similar manner by an official auditor. It is the duty of the auditor to disallow all illegal payments, and surcharge them upon the person making or authorising them; but such disallowances may be removed by certiorari into the Court of Queen's Bench, or an appeal may be made to the local Government Board. In municipal corporations two burgesses must be chosen annually as auditors of the accounts.

AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR, a distinguished French | style. The Rape of the Sabines, after Poussin, is conentomologist, was born at Paris, April 27, 1797. He began sidered his masterpiece. the study of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predilection for natural history, which subsequently led him to enter the medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to Latreille in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural history, and succeeded him in 1833. He established in 1824, in conjunction with Dumas and Adolphe Brongniart, the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, to which he made numerous valuable contributions, generally in co-operation with M. Milne-Edwards. The greater part of his other papers are contained in the Transactions of the Entomological Society, of which he was one of the founders, and for many years president. In 1838 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. He died in 1841, more from the effects of mental than of bodily exhaustion His principal work, Histoire des Insectes nuisibles à la Vigne, was continued after his death by Milne-Edwards and Blanchard, and published in 1842.

AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and engravers, who for several generations were distinguished in the same line. The first who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born 1592, and the last was Benoit, Claude's great-grandson, who died in 1712. The two most distinguished members of the family are the following:

AUDRAN, GERARD, or GIRARD, the most celebrated French engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of design and engraving by his father; and, following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun Constantine's Battle with Maxentius, his Triumph, and the Stoning of Stephen, which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran in the very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set out for Rome, where he resided three years, and engraved several fine plates. That great patron of the arts, M. Colbert, was so struck with the beauty of Audran's works, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On his return he applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great encouragement. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun's Battles of Alexander are regarded as the best of his numerous works "He was," says the Abbé Fontenai, "the most celebrated engraver that ever existed in the historical line. We have several subjects, which he engraved from his own designs, that manifested as much taste as character and facility. But in the Battles of Alexander he surpassed even the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gérard published in 1683 a work entitled Les proportions du corps humain mesurées sur les plus belles figures de l'antiquité, which has been translated into English.

AUDRAN, JEAN, nephew of Gérard, was born at Lyons in After having received instructions from his father, he went to Paris to perfect himself in the art of engraving under his uncle, next to whom he was the most distinguished member of his family. At the age of twenty his genius began to display itself in a surprising manner; and his subsequent success was such, that in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the king, Louis XIV., who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the Gobelins; and the following year he was made a member of the Royal Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the graver, and nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of this artist are those which appear not so pleasing to the eye at first sight. In these the etching constitutes a great part; and he has finished them in a bold, rough

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AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES, a well-known naturalist, was born in 1781 in Louisiana, where his parents, who were French Protestants, had taken up their residence while it was still a Spanish colony. They afterwards settled in Pennsylvania. From his early years he had a passion for observing the habits and appearances of birds, and attempting delineations of them from nature. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris, and remained there about two years, when among other studies he took some lessons in the drawing-school of David. On returning to America his father established him in a plantation in Pennsylvania, and he soon after married. But nothing could damp his ardour for natural history. For fifteen years he annually explored the depths of the primeval forests of America in long and hazardous expeditions, far from his family and his home. In these excursions he acquired the facility of making those spirited drawings of birds that gives such value to his magnificent work, The Birds of America. At that period he had not dreamed of any publication of his labours; as he informs us, "it was not the desire of fame that prompted to those long exiles; it was simply the enjoyment of nature." He afterwards removed with his family to the village of Henderson on the banks of the Ohio, where he continued his researches in natural history for several years, and at length set out for Philadelphia with a portfolio containing 200 sheets filled with coloured delineations of about 1000 birds. Business obliged him to quit Philadelphia unexpectedly for some weeks, and he deposited his portfolio in the warehouse of a friend; but to his intense dismay and mortification he found, on his return, that these precious fruits of his wanderings and his labours had been totally destroyed by rats. The shock threw him into a fever of several weeks' duration, that well-nigh proved fatal. But his native energy returned with returning health; and he resumed his gun and his game-bag, his pencils and his drawing-book, and plunged again into the recesses of the backwoods. In about three years he had again filled his portfolio, and then rejoined his family, who had in the meantime gone to Louisiana. After a short sojourn there he set out for the Old World, to exhibit to the ornithologists of Europe the riches of America in that department of natural history.

In 1826 Audubon arrived at Liverpool, where the merits of his spirited delineations of American birds were immediately recognised. An exhibition of them to the public in the galleries of the Royal Institution of that town was so successful that it was repeated at Manchester and at Edinburgh, where they were no less admired. When he proposed to publish a work on the birds of America, several naturalists advised him to issue the work in large quarto, as the most useful size for the lovers of natural history, and the most likely to afford him a sufficient number of subscribers to remunerate his labours. At first he yielded to this advice, and acknowledged its soundness; but finally he decided that his work should eclipse every other ornithological publication. Every bird was to be delineated of the size of life, and to each species a whole page was to be devoted; consequently, the largest elephant folio paper was to receive the impressions. This necessarily increased the expense of the work so much as to put it beyond the reach of most scientific naturalists-which accounts for the small number of persons who, for a considerable time, could be reckoned among his supporters in the gigantic undertaking. The exceptionally high character of the work, however, gradually became known; and a sufficient number of subscribers was at length obtained in Great Britain and America, during the ten or twelve years that the work was going through the press, to indemnify him

for the great cost of the publication-leaving him, however, | a very inadequate compensation for his extraordinary industry and skill. The first volume was published at New York in the end of the year 1830, the second in 1834, the third in 1837, and the fourth and last in 1839. The whole consists of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055 figures of birds the size of life. It is certainly the most magnificent work of the kind ever given to the world, and is well characterised by Cuvier, "C'est le plus magnifique monument que l'Art ait encore élevé à la Nature."

During the preparation and publication of his great work Audubon made several excursions from Great Britain. In the summer of 1828 he visited Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Cuvier, Humboldt, and other celebrated naturalists, and received from them every mark of honour and esteem. The following winter he passed in London. In April of 1830 he revisited the United States of America, and again explored the forests of the central and southern federal territories. In the following year he returned to London and Edinburgh, but the August of 1831 found him again in New York. The succeeding winter and spring he spent in Florida and South Carolina; and in the summer of 1832 he set out for the Northern States, with an intention of studying the annual migrations of birds, particularly of the passenger pigeon, of which he has given a striking description; but his career was arrested at Boston by a severe attack of cholera, which detained him there till the middle of August. After that he explored the coasts, lakes, rivers, and mountains of North America, from Labrador and Canada to Florida, during a series of laborious journeys, that occupied him for three years. From Charleston, accompanied by his wife and family, he took his third departure for Britain. During his earlier residence in Edinburgh he had begun to publish his American Ornithological Biography, which at length filled five large octavo volumes. The first was issued there by Adam Black in 1831; the last appeared in 1839. This book is admirable for the vivid pictures it presents of the habits of the birds, and the adventures of the naturalist. The descriptions are characteristically accurate and interesting. In 1839 Audubon bade a final adieu to Europe; and returning to his native country, he published, in a more popular form, his Birds of America, in seven octavo volumes, the last of which appeared in 1844. His ardent love of nature still prompted him to new enterprises, and he set out on fresh excursions; but in these he was always accompanied by his two sons, and one or two other naturalists. The result of these excursions was the projection of a new work, The Quadrupeds of America, in atlas folio, and also a Biography of American Quadrupeds, both of which were commenced at Philadelphia in 1840. The latter was completed in 1850, and is, perhaps, even superior to his Ornithological Biography.

To great intelligence in observing, and accuracy in delineating nature, to a vigorous, handsome frame, and pleasing expressive features, Audubon united very estimable mental qualities, and a deep sense of religion without a trace of bigotry. His conversation was animated and instructive, his manner unassuming, and he always spoke with gratitude to Heaven for the very happy life he had been permitted to enjoy. He died, after a short illness, in his own residence on the banks of the Hudson, at New York, on the 27th of January 1851. See Life and Adventures of J. J. Audubon the Naturalist, edited, from materials supplied by his widow, by Robert Buchanan, London, 1868. AUGEIAS (Avyeías, Avyéas, cf. λíov avyn), in Greek Legend, a son of Helios, the sun. He was a prince of Elis, and, consistently with his being a descendant of the sun-god, had an immense wealth of herds, including twelve bulls sacred to Helios, and white as swans. He lived

beside the stream Menios (M = moon); and his daughter Agamede was, like Medeia and Circe, skilled in witchcraft, and connected with the moon goddess. The task of Hercules was to clear out all his stalls in one day, and without help. This he did by making an opening in the wall and turning the stream through them. Augeias had promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this, alleging that Hercules had acted only in the service of Eurystheus.

AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, Duke of Castiglione, was the son of obscure parents, and born in 1757. After serving for a short period in the armies of France, he entered the Neapolitan service, and for some time supported himself by teaching fencing at Naples. In 1792 he joined the Republican army that watched the movements of Spain. He rose rapidly to the rank of brigadier-general, and commanded a division in the army of Italy. Here he distinguished himself in numerous engagements by his energy, skill, and vigorous rapidity of action. To him were due in great measure the brilliant victories of Millesimo, Dego, and Castiglione, and he led the decisive charges at the bloody combats of Lodi and Arcola. In 1797 he took part with Barras and the Directory, and was an active agent in the revolution of the 18th of Fructidor; but his jealousy of his former comrade, Bonaparte, prevented their intimacy; and he was one of the general officers not privy to the noted revolution of the 18th of Brumaire (Nov. 9) 1799. He received, however, the command of the army of Holland and the Lower Rhine, but was superseded in 1801. From that time he lived in retirement, till 1804, when he was made a marshal of the French empire, and in the following year he was appointed to the command of the expedition against the Vorarlberg, which he quickly subdued. He also distinguished himself greatly in the battles of Jena and Eylau. In 1809-10 he commanded the French in Catalonia, and tarnished his laurels by his great cruelty to the Spaniards; but he was again more honourably conspicuous in the campaign of 1813, especially in the terrible battle of Leipsic. In 1814 he had the command of a reserve army at Lyons, and might have made a diversion in favour of Napoleon, but he preferred to submit, and retained a command under the Bourbons. In the following year he at first refused to join Napoleon on his escape from Elba, and when he would afterwards have accepted a command his services were declined. He also failed to obtain military office under the new dynasty, and after having had the painful task of being one of the commission on the trial of Ney, he returned to his estates, where he died of dropsy in 1816.

AUGSBURG, a celebrated city of Germany, capital of the circle of Swabia and Neuburg in Bavaria, the principal seat of the commerce of South Germany, and of commercial transactions with the south of Europe. It derives its name from the Roman Emperor Augustus, who, on the conquest of Rhætia by Drusus, established a Roman colony named Augusta Vindelicorum (about 14 B.C.) In the 5th century it was sacked by the Huns, and afterwards came under the power of the Frankish kings. It was almost entirely destroyed in the war of Charlemagne against Thassilon, duke of Bavaria; and after the dissolution and division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the dukes of Swabia. After this it rose rapidly into importance as a manufacturing and commercial town, and its merchant princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the Medici of Florence; but the alterations produced in the currents of trade by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned a great decline. In 1276 it was raised to the rank of a free imperial city, which it retained, with many changes in its internal constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to the kingdom of Bavaria. Meanwhile, it was

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