properly belongs to a branch of the great question of It remains to be remarked that though the annual Moult Alauda, 716; 760, 768, Alaudidæ, 746, 750, 755, Alca, 720; 731, 734, 775. Alcedo, 715, 719. Alcidæ, 751, 752, 755, 756, Alectoromorphæ, 699,712, 717, 720, 723, 726. Aluco, 713; 747, 760. Amaurornis, 763. Amblonyx, 728. Ampelidæ, 748, 749, 751. Ampelis, 770. Amphimorphæ, 700, 712. Amydrus, 758. Anais, 763. Apteryx, 718, 721, 722, Aptornis, 699, 720; 731. Asio, 713, 714; 747. Bucconidæ, 746. Buceros, 712, 715, 721. Bucerotidæ, 761, 762, 763. Budytes, 752. Buphaga, 759. commonly takes place so soon as the breeding-season is INDEX TO THE GENERA AND LARGER GROUPS OF BIRDS NAMED. Capitonidæ, 746. Carinatæ, 699, 700, 711, Cathartes, 752. Cormoranus, 730. Corvida, 748, 750, 751, Corvus, 715, 716; 728, 730. Corythaix, 715, 721. Cotingida, 746, 748, 749. Crax, 699, 712, 727; 731. Cuculidæ, 748, 749, 750, Cuculus, 715; 768. Cuphopterus, 759. Cursoriidæ, 755. Cathartidæ, 713, 726; 749, Dasylophus, 763. Certhiiparus, 742. 726. Coccygomorphæ, 699,700, Collidæ, 758. Corax, 775. 718, 714, 720. Didunculidæ, 741. Drepanidæ, 742. Formicariidæ, 743, 745,, Laornis, 729. 746, 747, 748. Fregatidæ, 749, 750, 752. Fregilus, 716. Fringilla, 730, 756, 767. Fulica, 711; 742. Furnariidæ, 772. Gallus, 717, 719, 720; 780, 755. Hirundinidæ, 747, 751, Homolopus, 780. Icteridae, 745, 746, 747, Insessores, 737. Irrisoridæ, 758. Ketupa, 713. Lagopus, 781, 753, 757, Lampornis, 749. Laridæ, 730, 745, 750, 751, 753, 755, 756. Larus, 724; 780. Lithornis, 729. Loddigesia, 747. Lophopsittacus, 732, 734. Lycocorax, 740. Mareca, 712. Margarops, 749. Megalæma, 712, 715. Megalæmidæ, 738. Megapodiidæ, 741, 743. Mellisuga, 749. Mergus, 730. Meropidæ, 755. Microglossa, 715, 717. Miserythrus, 733. (A. N.) Opisthocomi, 743. Oreotrochilus, 747. Oxyrhamphidæ, 746. Pagophila, 755. Palæocircus, 730. Palæoperdix, 730. Palæornis, 715; 733. Palæortyx, 730. Palæotringa, 729 Palamedeidæ, 743, 745, Palapterygidæ, 731, 742. Pandion, 741. Panuridæ, 755, 756. Paradiseidæ, 740, 760. Parida, 742, 748, 750, 755, 761, 766. Parus, 757, 759, 766. Patagona, 711. Pavo, 764. 751, 752. Phrygilus, 746. Phyllornithidæ, 738, 761. Phytotomidae, 745, 746. 98 Pittida, 755, 756, 760, 762, Psittacidæ, 699; 745, 746, 763. 748. Psittacomorphæ, 700, 714. Pteroclomorphe, 699. Puffinus, 730. Pyranga, 750. 718, 720, 721, 724, 726, 727; 738, 742, 745, 758, 760, 775, 776. Recurvirostridæ, 750. Regulus, 756. Rhabdornis, 763. Rhamphastidæ, 743, 746. Rhamphastos, 715, 721. Rhamphocinclus, 749. Rhea, 717, 719, 721, 722, | Spheniscidæ, 741, 745 723; 731, 738. Rheidæ, 699, 722; 743, 745, 746. 724 746, 747. Spheniscomorphæ, 699, Spheniscus, 747. Spindalis. 749. Sporadinus. 749. Starnoenas, 749. Tantalidæ, 750, 752. Tatare, 741. Tetrao, 727; 730, 731, 736. Steatornis, 712, 715, 723, Tetraoninæ, 750. 726; 746. Steatornithidæ, 746, 747. Steganopodes, 729. 775. Strigidæ, 742. 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 755, 756, 759, 763, 775. Strigopida, 742. Strigops, 699, 720. Strix, 713; 730. Struthio. 717. 718, 721, 722, 723; 730, 733, 758. Struthionidæ, 699, 709, 722; 758. Sturnidæ, 741, 742, 755, 756, 760, 763. Sula, 713, 726; 730. Sulidæ, 751. Sylvia, 776. Sylviida, 730, 738, 742, 746, 748, 750, 751, 755, 756, 759. Syndactyli, 712. Syrrhaptes, 723; 756, 770. Talegalla, 712. Tanagridæ, 743, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750. Thamnobia, 772. Thinocorida, 745. Thinocorinæ, 700. Thinocorus, 699, 715; 745. Timeliidæ, 740, 742, 755, Trochilus, 716; 749 Turnicidæ, 699, 713; 755. Turnix, 716, 720. Tyrannidæ, 743, 745, 746. Upupidæ, 720; 155. Vireonidæ, 745, 718, 749, 750. Vulturidæ, 738, 755. BIRDS OF PARADISE, a group of Passerine Birds inhabiting New Guinea and the adjacent islands, so named by the Dutch voyagers in allusion to the brilliancy of their plumage, and to the current belief that, possessing neither wings nor feet, they passed their lives in the air, sustained on their ample plumes, resting only at long intervals suspended from the branches of lofty trees by the wirelike feathers of the tail, and drawing their food" from the Standard Wing Bird of Paradise (Semioptera wallacer). dews of heaven and the nectar of flowers." Such stories obtained credence from the fact that so late as the year 1760, when Linnæus named the principal species apoda, or "footless," no perfect specimen had been seen in Europe, the natives who sold the skins to coast traders invariably depriving them of feet and wings. The birds now usually included under this name belong to two distinct families, the Paradiseido and the Epimachida, the former or true Birds of Paradise being closely allied to the Crows, the latter or Long-billed Paradise Birds being usually classed, from the form and size of their bills, with the Hoopoes. Both families occupy the same geographical area, and are alike distingushed by the enormous development of certain parts of their plumage. Of the true birds of paradise, the largest is the Great Emerald Bird (Paradisea apoda), about the size of the common jay. Its head and neck are covered with short thick-set feathers, resembling velvet pile, of a bright straw colour above, and a brilliant emerald green beneath. From under the shoulders on each side springs a dense tuft of golden-orange plumes, about 2 feet in length, which the bird can raise at pleasure, so as to enclose the greater part of its body. The two centre tail feathers attain a length of 34 inches, and, being destitute of webs, have a thin wire-like appearance. This splendid plumage, however, belongs only to the adult males, the females being exceedingly plain birds of a nearly uniform dusky brown colour, and possessing neither plumes nor lengthened tail feathers. The young males at first resemble the females, and it is only after the fourth moulting, according to A. R. Wallace, who recently studied those birds in their native haunts, that they assume the perfect plumage of their sex, which, however, they retain permanently afterwards, and not during the breeding season only as was formerly supposed. At that season the males assemble, in numbers varying from twelve to twenty, on certain trees, and there disport themselves so as to display their magnificent plumes in presence of the females." Wallace in his Malay Archipelago, vol. ii., thus describes the attitude of the male birds at one of those "sacaleli," or dancing parties, as the natives call them; "their wings," he says, 'are raised vertically over the back, the head is bent down and stretched out, and the long plumes are raised up and expanded till they form two magnificent golden fans striped with deep red at the base, and fading off into the pale brown tint of the finely-divided and softly-waving points; the whole bird is then overshadowed by them, the crouching body, yellow head, and emerald green throat, forming but the foundation and setting to the golden glory which waves above." It is at this season that those birds are chiefly captured. The bird-catcher having found a tree thus selected for a "dancing party," builds a hut among the lower branches in which to conceal himself. As soon as the male birds have begun their graceful antics, he shoots them, one after the other, with blunt arrows, for the purpose of stunning and bringing them to the ground without drawing blood, which would injure their plumage; and so eager are those birds in their courtship that almost all the males are thus brought down before the danger is perceived. The natives in preparing the skins remove both feet and wings, so as to give more prominence to the commercially valuable tuft of plumes. They also remove the The skull, and the skin is then dried in a smoky hut. Great Emerald Bird, so far as yet known, is only found in the Aru Islands. The Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisea minor), though smaller in size and somewhat less brilliant in plumage, in other respects closely resembles the preceding species. It is also more common, and much more widely distributed, being found throughout New Guinea and the neighbouring islands. Its plumes are those most generally used as ornaments for ladies' head-dresses. It has been brought alive to Europe, and has been known to live for two years in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London. Both species are omnivorous, feeding voraciously on fruits and insects. They are strong, active birds, and are believed to be polygamous. The King Bird of Paradise (Cicinnurus regius) is one of the smallest and most brilliant of the group, and is specially distinguished by its two middle tail feathers, the ends of which alone are webbed, and coiled into a beautiful spiral disc of a lovely emerald green. In the Red Bird of Paradise (Paradisea rubra) the same feathers are greatly elongated and destitute of webs, but differ from those in the other species, in being flattened out like ribbons. They are only found in the small island of Waigiou off the coast of New Guinea. Of the Long-billed Paradise Birds (Epimachida) the most remarkable is that known as the "Twelve-wired" (Seleucides alba), its delicate yellow plumes, twelve of which are transformed into wire-like bristles nearly a foot long, affording a striking contrast to the dark metallic tints of the rest of its plumage. Like the Paradiseido they feed on insects and fruits. BIRKBECK, GEORGE, an English physician and philanthropist, born at Settle in Yorkshire in 1776. He early evinced a strong predilection for scientific pursuits; and in 1799, after graduating as doctor of medicine, he was appointed to the chair of natural philosophy at the Andersonian Institution of Glasgow. In the following year he delivered, for the benefit of the working-classes, a gratuitous course of scientific lectures, which were continued during the two following years and proved eminently successful. He removed to London in 1804, and there he endeavoured to prosecute his philanthropic schemes, at first without much encouragement, but ultimately with marked success. In 1827 he contributed to found the Mechanics' Institute, his coadjutors being Bentham, Wilkie, Cobbett, and others. He was appointed director of the institute, which he had originally endowed with the sum of £3700, and held the office till his death in December 1841. BIRKENHEAD, a seaport, market-town, extra-parochial district, township, and parliamentary borough, in the hundred of Wirral and west division of Cheshire, England. It is situated on the western bank of the Mersey, directly opposite Liverpool. It is of considerable antiquity, its history dating from 1150, when a priory was founded in honour of St Mary and St James by the third baron of Dunham Massey, and had considerable endowments. The priors sat in the parliaments of the earls of Chester, and enjoyed all the dignities and privileges of palatinate barons. A fine crypt and some interesting ruins of the priory still exist. From a comparatively obscure fishing village Birkenhead has become a large and important town, with a rapidity truly marvellous. The inhabitants numbered only 200 in 1821; in 1831 they were 2569; the following table shows the increase since 1811: Birkenhead began to develop itself as a market-town in the year 1833, when an Act was obtained for paving, lighting, watching, cleansing, and improving the town, and for regulating the police and establishing a market. By this Act the Improvement Commissioners were originally constituted, and at that time included the mayor, bailiffs, and four aldermen of Liverpool. Immediately after the passing of this Act the town made rapid progress. The principal streets were laid out on a regular plan, intersecting each other at right angles. A line of tramway, the first laid in England, affords every facility of street communication. Hamilton Square, which occupies the summit of the rising ground near the river, forms the basis or starting point for all the parallel and rectangular lines of streets. The houses of the square are four stories in height, with stone fronts, the centres and ends of each terrace being relieved or ornamented with columns and porticos in the Tuscan order of architecture. Birkenhead has (exclusive of the out townships) nine churches belonging to the Established Church. St Mary's, built in 1821 by Mr. F. R. Price, late lord of the manor, is in the Decorated Gothic style of architecture, with a wellproportioned tower and spire. The churchyard includes the burial ground and ruins of the ancient priory and chapel of St Mary. In addition to the Established churches there are twenty-four places of worship belonging to various Nonconforming denominations, viz., five Presbyterian, three Independent or Congregational, 2 Baptist, four Wesleyan, one Primitive Methodist, one Society of Friends, two Plymouth Brethren, three Roman Catholic, one Catholic and Apostolic, two Unitarian. Many of these buildings are fair examples of Gothic and classic architecture. St Aidan's Theological College, in connection with the Established Church, occupies a fine and elevated site adjoining the western boundary of Claughton. It is a handsome building in the Tudor style of architecture. There are seven public elementary schools in connection with the Established churches, and seven in connection with other religious bodies. There is also a firstclass proprietary school, conducted on the model of the great public schools, besides several private academies. There are several public buildings in Birkenhead worthy of notice. The market-hall is a large and commodious building, 430 feet long and 130 feet wide, with substantial and lofty vaults extending under its entire area. It was opened in 1845, and built at a cost of £35,000. The public slaughter-houses in Jackson Street, belonging to the Birkenhead Commissioners, form an extensive pile of buildings; they were erected in 1846 at a cost, exclusive of the site, of about £11,000, and were the first public slaughter-houses of any extent erected in England. The town water-works also belong to the Birkenhead Commissioners, and consist of two pumping stations, the wells of which yield an aggregate supply of about 2 million gallons in twenty-four hours. The town-hall in Hamilton Street is a one-story building, and formed when first erected the front of the old market-hall; it contains a police court, fire-engine station, and chief bridewell; there are, besides, two branch bridewells. Among other buildings are the post-office in Conway Street, the borough hospital, and the School of Art, also in Conway Street, both erected by the late Mr John Laird, M.P., and a free library in Hamilton Street. The large and commodious industrial schools in Corporation Road were built at the cost of Sir Wm. Jackson, Bart., as a memorial to the late Prince Consort. The Music Hall and the Queen's Hall are situated in Claughton Road. There is also a neat and commodious theatre and opera-house in Argyle Street. Birkenhead Park, opened in 1847, occupies 190 acres of ground, and was laid out at a cost (including the land) of £140,000. Birkenhead Cemetery, on Flaybrick Hill, occupies 20 acres of ground, and cost about £40,000. Woodside Ferry may be regarded as the principal entrance to Birkenhead and Wirral from Liverpool; and its exclusive right of ferryage dates back to 1332. In 1842 the Birkenhead Commissioners purchased this ferry, under an Act of Parliament, from Mr F. R. Price, the lord of the manor. At the present time the annual receipts for passengers alone amount to £36,000, and the number of persons conveyed in the twelve months is upwards of nine millions, the single fare being one penny. A large landingstage, 800 feet in length and 80 feet in width, is moored at this ferry, the passenger traffic being conducted to and from the stage by means of a double gangway bridge, covered by two circular glass and iron roofs. The goods traffic is conveyed to and from the stage by a well-constructed floating bridge, 670 feet in length and 30 feet in width, which enables the traffic to be carried on at any state of the tide. Handsome and commodious saloon steamers, built and designed upon an improved principle, and capable of carrying above 1700 passengers each, are now used upon this ferry. The late Mr William Laird, whose name is so well known in connection with iron shipbuilding, first conceived the idea of turning to advantage the capabilities of Wallasey Pool for the formation of a dock. After a lapse of many years, the Commissioners of Birkenhead, alive to the advantages which this project would confer upon the town, employed the late Mr Rendel as their engineer, and applied to Parliament for powers to construct the necessary works. The foundation-stone of the new docks was laid in October 1844, and the first dock was opened by the late Lord Morpeth on 5th April 1847. Subsequently, the dock powers of the Commissioners were entrusted to a corporate body of trustees who afterwards transferred the property to the corporation of Liverpool; and ultimately it was vested in the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, a corporation created by the Act of 1857 for the management of the docks on both sides of the Mersey. At that time the area of the dock space open and in use in Birkenhead was about 7 acres. The docks bound the town on the north and north-east and partly on the east, extending from the landing-stage at Woodside Ferry to the Wallasey Bridge, a distance of over two miles. The Great Float has been constructed on the site of the Wallasey Pool, forming an immense dock of 150 acres, with a quay space of about five miles. The Great Float separates Birkenhead from Poulton-cum-Seacombe, in the parish of Wallasey, and communicates on the east with a low water basin of about 14 acres (now being converted into a dock) and the Alfred Dock (about 8 acres, and quay space 460 lineal yards), and on the south-east with the Egerton, Morpeth, and Morpeth Branch Docks. The Morpeth Dock (about 11 acres, quay space 1299 lineal yards) is connected with the Morpeth Branch Dock (about 3 acres, quay space 600 lineal yards), both set apart for steamers. The total water area of these docks is about 170 acres, and the lineal quay space about 10 miles. The entrances to the Birkenhead Docks are capable of docking the largest class of steamers afloat. The massive iron bridges across the dock entrances are opened and closed by hydraulic power, which is likewise applied to the cranes, coal hoists, warehouse lifts, and other appliances about the docks. At the extreme western end of the West Float are three large graving docks, two about 750 feet in length, and 130 feet and 80 feet in width respectively, and the largest, now in course of construction, measuring about 900 feet in length and 130 feet in width. Substantial and commodious sheds and warehouses have been erected at various places along the dock quays for the full development of the traffic. The block of warehouses known by the name of the corn warehouses are immense piles of buildings, with canal between to give access to the separate blocks of buildings, and with machinery for carrying the grain, &c., from floor to floor, and for despatching it by railway. In 1847 the Birkenhead Dock Warehousing Company opened their first warehouses, capable of storing 80,000 tons of goods. Each block is detached, and the whole premises are surrounded by a wall 12 feet high. A railway branch, called the Dock Extension Railway, is carried round the property. The company also built blocks of houses for their workmen, known as the Dock Cottages. This property is now in the hands of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. The commerce of Birkenhead is in all respects a branch of that of Liverpool, and chiefly devoted to coal, guano, and grain,-the quantity of coal alone exported being over one million tons per annum. Many manufactories have sprung up within the last few years on the margin of the Great Float and other parts of the town, such as iron foundries, boiler-works, oilcake and seed mills, &c., some of the engineering works, shipbuilding yards, and forges being on a large scale. The Birkenhead Iron-works of Messrs Laird Brothers employ from 3000 to 4000 men; these works, in connection with their shipbuilding yards, have turned out some of the largest iron-clad ships; the engine-works, also belonging to the same firm, are on a very extensive scale. The Canada Works, belonging to Messrs Thomas Brassey and Co., carry on an extensive business in marine engines, iron-bridge building, pontoon and general railway work. There are also the Britannia Works (Messrs James Taylor and Co.) for portable engines, marine engines, traction engines, steam cranes, &c.; Messrs Clay and Inman's Forge, for heavy shafting, &c.; the Wirral Foundry, for large engine castings, &c.; and the Starbuck Car and Waggon Co.'s Works, for building tramway cars, &c.; and Messrs Clover and Clayton's shipbuilding premises as well as other manufactories of less extent. The affairs of the township of Birkenhead and Claughtoncum-Grange are managed by twenty-one Commissioners, chosen by the ratepayers. The town contains a head postoffice, county court, police court, petty sessional court for the hundred of Wirral, and two banks. Two newspapers are published weekly. The principal market-day is Saturday, but a large hay, straw, and vegetable market is held on Tuesdays in the hay market, a large open space of ground, having an area of about 1 acres. The total area of the Commissioners' district is 1684 acres, including 365 acres of water space, viz., Birkenhead, 1248 acres, and Claughton-cum-Grange, 436. The parliamentary borough of Birkenhead was constituted in 1861, and returns one member to parliament. Its parliamentary limits include the extra-parochial chapelry of Birkenhead, the several "townships of Claughton, Tranmere, and Oxton, and so much of the township of Higher Bebington as lies to the eastward of the road leading from Higher Tranmere to Lower Bebington." The population of this district in 1861 was 51,649, and in 1871 it had increased to 64,671. BIRMINGHAM, the fourth town in size and population in England, and the fifth in the United Kingdom, is situated at the extreme north-west of the county of Warwick, in 52° 59' N. lat. and 1° 18′ W. long. It is 102 miles in a straight line N.W. of London, from which it is distant 112 miles by the North-Western Railway. The Roman Road, known as the Ikenield Street, runs through the town. On the north Birmingham touches Staffordshire, and on the south and west Worcestershire, the suburbs of the town extending largely into both these counties-Harborne and Handsworth being in the former and Balsall, Moseley, and Yardley in the latter. The borough itself, however-both parliamentary and municipal, the boundaries being identical-is wholly in the county of Warwick. It covers an area of 8420 acres (of which 5900 are built upon), and includes the whole of the parishes of Birmingham and Edgbaston, and about one-third of the parish of Aston. It is nearly 6 miles long, has an average breadth of 3 miles, is 21 miles in circumference, and has 190 miles of streets and roads. The population, at the census of 1871, was 343,000; and in June 1875 it was estimated by the registrar-general at 360,000. Birmingham was enfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832, when two representatives were assigned to it-and Mr Thomas Attwood and Mr Joshua Scholefield (leaders of the Political Union) were elected; by the Reform Act of 1867 this number was | raised to three. A grant of incorporation was made to the town in 1838, when the first municipal council was elected. In 1870 a School Board of fifteen members was elected, under the Elementary Education Act passed in that year. The town is built upon the New Red Sandstone, on a boldly undulated site, varying from 200 to 600 feet above the sea-level, steadily rising towards the north and west, so that when looked at from the heights on the south-east side it presents the appearance of a vast semicircle, picturesquely disposed, the masses of houses being broken by spires and lofty chimneys, and the south and west sides being thickly wooded on the slopes. The plan of the town is irregular, and the streets are mostly winding, and many of them somewhat narrow. In the centre, however, is a large open space, known as the Bull Ring and High Street, at the foot of which stands the mother church of St Martin, and in which is situated the Market-Hall, one of the largest buildings of its kind in the kingdom. From this centre access is obtained to the principal streets, New Street and High Street; the former, about a quarter of a mile in length, derives a most picturesque appearance from its slightly curved form, and from the effective manner in which the sky-line is broken by lofty buildings alternating with others of lower altitude. This street contains the Exchange, the Grammar School, the Theatre Royal, the rooms of the Royal Society of Artists, which have a fine Corinthian portico stretching across the pavement. At the upper end of the street is the Town-Hall, and close to this are the corporate buildings and the Post-Office. The last quarter of a century has seen a great advancement in the style and accommodation of the public and commercial edifices; streets have been widened and new roads opened, and the place has altogether put on a livelier and wealthier look. Excepting in some of the older and poorer districts, the private houses have undergone a corresponding improvement. The richer classes live chiefly in the parish of Edgbaston, which belongs almost entirely to Lord Calthorpe, and in which strict rules as to the description, position, and area of the houses are enforced. The streets inhabited by the working-classes are, of course, more crowded, and many of the houses are built in enclosed courts, access to which is gained from the street, either by openings between the houses, or by narrow entries, too commonly built over, and thus impeding the free passage of air. Many of the courts, however, are wide enough to allow of small gardens in front of the houses, while in the suburbs almost every house is provided with a garden of some kind; and in a considerable number of cases the houses, through means of building societies, have become |