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as Boetius calls them) on arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. The statement of Cassiodorus that he translated Nicomachus is rhetorical. Boetius himself tells us in his preface addressed to his father-in-law Symmachus that he had taken liberties with the text of Nicomachus, that he had abridged the work when necessary, and that he had introduced formulæ and diagrams of his own where he thought them useful for bringing out the meaning. His work on music also is not a translation from Pythagoras, who left no writing behind him. But Boetius belonged to the school of musical writers who based their science on the method of Pythagoras. They thought that it was not sufficient to trust to the ear alone, to determine the principles of music, as did practical musicians like Aristoxenus, but that along with the ear, physical experiments should be employed. The work of Boetius is in five books, and is a very complete exposition of the subject. It remained a text-book of music in the Universities of Oxford and

Cambridge till within comparatively recent times. It is still very valuable as a help in ascertaining the principles of ancient music, and gives us the opinions of some of the best ancient writers on the art. The manuscripts of the geometry of Boetius differ widely from each other. The latest editor, Godofredus Friedlein, thinks that there are only two manuscripts which can at all lay claim to contain the work of Boetius. He has published the Ars Geometric, in two books, as given in these manuscripts; but critics are generally inclined to doubt the genuineness even of these.

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By far the most important and most famous of the works of Boetius is his book De Consolatione Philosophia. Gibbon justly describes it as a golden volume, not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully, but which claims incomparable merit from the barbarism of the times and the situation of the author." It was a favourite book of the Middle Ages, and deserves to be a favourite still. The high reputation it had in medieval times is attested by the numerous translations, commentaries, and imitations of it which then appeared. Among others Asser, the instructor of Alfred the Great, and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, commented on it. Alfred translated it into AngloSaxon.

Versions of it appeared in German, French, Italian, Spanish, and Greek before the end of the 15th century. Chaucer translated it into English prose before the year 1382; and this translation was published by Caxton at Westminster, 1480. Lydgate followed in the Lydgate followed in the wake of Chaucer. It is said that, after the invention of printing, amongst others Queen Elizabeth translated it, and that the work was well known to Shakespeare.

This famous work consists of five books. Its form is peculiar, and is an imitation of a similar work by Marcianus Capella, De Nuptiis Philologia et Mercurii. It is alternately in prose and verse. The verse shows great facility of metrical composition, but a considerable portion of it is transferred from the tragedies of Seneca. The first book opens with a few verses, in which Boetius describes how his sorrows had turned his hair grey, and had brought him to a premature old age. As he is thus lamenting, a woman appears to him of dignified mien, whom for a time he cannot distinguish in consequence of his tears, but at last he recognizes her as his guardian, Philosophy. She, resolving to apply the remedy for his grief, puts some questions to him for that purpose. She finds that he believes that God rules the world, but does not know what he himself is; and this absence of self-knowledge is the cause of his weakness. In the second book Philosophy presents to Boetius Fortune, who is made to state to him the blessings he has enjoyed, and after that proceeds to discuss with him the kind of blessings that fortune can bestow, which are shown to be unsatisfactory and uncertain. In the third book Philosophy promises to lead him to true happiness, which is to be found in God alone, for since God is the highest good, and the highest good is true happiness, God is true happiness. Nor can real evil exist, for since God is all-powerful, and since he does not wish evil, evil must be non-existent. In the fourth book Boetius raises the question, Why, if the governor of the universe is good, do evils exist, and why is virtue often punished and vice rewarded? Philo

sophy proceeds to show that this takes place only in appearance; that vice is never unpunished nor virtue unrewarded. From this Philosophy passes into a discussion in regard to the nature of providence and fate, and shows that every fortune is good. The fifth and last book takes up the question of man's free will and God's foreknowledge, and, by an exposition of the nature of God, attempts to show that these doctrines are not subversive of each other; and the conclusion is drawn that God remains a foreknowing spectator of all events, and the ever-present eternity of his vision agrees with the future quality of our actions, dispensing rewards to the good and punishments to the wicked.

Several theological works have been ascribed to Boetius, as has been already mentioned. The Consolatio affords conclusive proof that the author was not a practical believer in Christianity. The book contains several expressions, such as daemones, angelica virtus, and purgatoria clementia, which have been thought to be derived from the Christian faith; but they are used in a heathen sense, and are explained sufficiently by the circumstance that Boetius was on intimate terms with Christians, and could not help being influenced to some extent by their language. The writer nowhere finds consolation in any Christian belief, and Christ is never named in the work. It is not impossible, however, that Boetius may have been brought up a Christian, and that in his early years he may have written some Christian books. This is the conjecture to which the latest editor of his Christian treatises has had recourse. Peiper thinks that the first three treatises are the productions of the early years of Boetius. The first, De Sancta Trinitate, is addressed to Symmachus (Domino Patri Symmacho), and the result of the short discussion, which is of an abstract nature, and deals partly with the ten categories, is that unity is predicated absolutely, or, in regard to the substance of the Deity, trinity is predicated relatively. The second treatise is addressed to John the deacon ("Ad Joannem Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter prædicentur." The treatise is Diaconum"), and its subject is "Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus shorter than the former, occupying only two or three pages, and the conclusion of the argument is the same. The third treatise bears the title, Quomodo substantiæ in eo quod sint bonæ sint Christian, and it contains nothing of great value; therefore its cum non sint substantialia bona. It contains nothing distinctly authorship is a matter of little consequence. Peiper thinks that, as the best MSS. uniformly assign these treatises to Boetius, they are to be regarded as his; that it is probable that Symmachus and John (who afterwards became Pope) were the men of highest distinction who took charge of him when he lost his father; and that these treatises are the first-fruits of his studies, which he dedicates to his guardians and benefactors. He thinks that the variations in the inscriptions of the fifth treatise, which is not found in the best manuscript, are so great that the name of Boetius could not have originally been in the title. The fourth book is also not found in the best manuscript, and two manuscripts have no inscription. He infers, from these facts, that there is no sure evidence for the authorship of the fourth and fifth treatises. The fifth treatise is Contra Eutychen et Nestorium. Both Eutyches and Nestorius are spoken of as living. A council is mentioned, in which a letter was read, expounding the opinion of the Eutychians for the first time. The novelty of the opinion is also alluded to. All these circumstances point to the Council of Chalcedon (451). The treatise was therefore written before the birth of Boetius, if it be not a forgery; but there is no reason to suppose that the treatise was not a genuine production of the time to which it professes to belong. The fourth treatise, De Fide Catholica, does not contain any distinct chronological data; but the tone and opinions of the treatise produce the impression that it probably belonged to the same period as the treatise against Eutyches and Nestorius. Several inscriptions ascribe both these treatises to Boetius. It will be seen from this statement that Peiper bases his conclusions on grounds far too narrow; and on the whole it is far more probable that Boetius wrote none of the four Christian treatises, particularly as they are not ascribed to him by any of his contemporaries. Three of them express in the strongest language the orthodox faith of the church in opposition to the Arian heresy, and these three put in unmistakable language the procession of the Holy Spirit from both Father and Son. The fourth argues for the orthodox belief of the two natures and one person of Christ. When the desire arose that it should be believed that Boetius perished from his opposition to the heresy of Theodoric, it was natural to ascribe to him works which were in harmony with this supposed fact. The works may really have been written by one Boethus, a bishop of Africa, as Jordan supposes, or by some Saint Severinus, as Nitzsch conjectures, and the similarity of name may have aided the transference of them to the heathen or neutral Boetius.

The best editions of the entire works of Boetius are the Basel edition of 1570, and Migne's in his Patrologia Cursus Completus, Series Latina, vols. lxiii., lxiv. There are many editions of the De Consolatione. The most recent are-(1.) In Valpy's Delphin Classics, Nos. 54 and 55. This contains the lives of Boetius by Bertius and III. 108

In

by Rota, and a list of the various editions of Boetius. It has also numerous notes. (2.) An edition by Theodorus Obbarius, Jenæ, 1843. This contains prolegomena on the life and writings of Boetius, on his religion and philosophy, and on the manuscripts and editions, a critical apparatus, and notes. (3.) An edition by Rudolfus Peiper, Lipsia, 1871. This edition has the fullest collation of manuscripts, though a considerable number of manuscripts still remain to be collated. In addition to an account of the MSS. used, it gives the Book of Lupus " De Metris Boetii," the "Vita Boetii" contained in some MSS., "Elogia Boetii," and a short list of the commentators, translators, and imitators of the Consolation. It contains also an account of the metres used by Boetius in the Consolatio, and a list of the passages which he has borrowed from the tragedies of Seneca. The work also includes the five treatises, four of them Christian, of which mention has been made above. 1867 appeared a very satisfactory edition of Boetius's works, De Institutione Arithmetica Libri Duo, De Institutione Musica Libri Quinque, Accedit Geometria quæ fertur Boetii: e libris manu scriptis edidit Godofredus Friedlein, Lipsia. (J. D.) BOGHAZ-KEUY, or BOGHAS-KOEI (i.e., the Village of the Gorge), a small hamlet in Asia Minor, remarkable for its ruins, which are identified with the ancient Pterium or Pteria. It stands 3515 feet above the sea-level, about half-way between Angora and Amassia, almost in the 40th parallel of N. lat., on the banks of a small tributary of the Kizil Irmak. The present village contains about 150 houses, but the remains give evidence of its former importance. Almost all the heights they occupy bear traces of fortification; extensive chambers have been excavated in the rocks; many portions of escarpment are elaborately sculptured; and the massive foundations of a vast temple or palace can still be traced. The date and origin of these ruins have given rise to much discussion. Dr Barth thinks the city was probably founded by Cyaxares, the Mede, and explains the groups of sculpture as commemorating the peace between Cyaxares and Alyattes, which is described by Herodotus in the 74th chapter of his 1st book. M. Texier's hypothesis, on the other hand, is that the carvings represent the introduction of the worship of Astarte into Phrygia; and this interpretation has been provisionally accepted by Van Lennep, in whose Travels in Asia Minor, 1870, carefully-drawn copies of the sculptures will be found. (See also Barth, Reise von Trapezunt nach Scutari, 1860, and in Monatsbericht der Berl. Akad. der Wissensch., Febr., 1859.) BOGODUKHOFF, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkoff, about 43 miles N.W. of that city, in 50° 10' N. lat. and 36° 32′ E. long., on the sandstone heights along the River Merl. There seems to have been a settlement on this site as early as 1571, and in 1681 it is spoken of as a town. In 1709, at the time of the Swedish war, Bogodukhoff was taken by Menschikoff and the Emperor Alexis Petrovitch. There are still remains of the ramparts and ditches with which it was formerly surrounded. The town contains four churches and a cathedral (of the Assumption, built in 1793), a hospital, and an almshouse. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and gardening, and in the manufacture of boots, caps, and furred gowns. Tanning also is carried on to some extent. The trade is principally in grain, cattle, and fish. There are two weekly markets and six annual fairs. Population in 1860, 10,522.

BOGOMILI, a heretical sect of the Greek Church, who came into notice during the 12th century. In origin they are probably Bulgarian, and their name appears to be a compound of the Slavonic words Bog, God, and milui, have mercy. In doctrine they are closely assimilated to the Euchites of the preceding century, and they may be looked on as an offshoot of that older sect. The peculiarity of their system of belief is the place assigned to Satan, who, under his original name Satanael, is held by them to be the first-born son of God. But Satanael, though seated at the right hand of his father and endowed with universal sway, was discontented and desired to become independent. He

led away a section of the angels from their allegiance, and with their aid formed out of chaos a new world—the earth, and a new race-man. But he was unable to give to man a portion of his own living spirit, and therefore besought God to bestow life on this new creation, promising that the vacant places of the seceded angels should be filled up by the spirits of men. Repenting of this promise, however, he resolved to bring forth an evil race which should overwhelm the good among mankind. He accordingly seduced Eve, who gave birth to Cain, the first of the descendants of the evil principle. His power also enabled him to deceive the greater part of mankind, particularly the Jews, to whom he represented himself as Jehovah. At last God sent out from himself the Logos, or angel Michael, who came upon earth in an ethereal form which was in appearance only an earthly body. Christ overcame Satanael, aud deprived him of his creative power, El, from which time he is called Satan. Christ then ascended and took his place beside the Father, who again sent forth an emanation, the Holy Ghost, for the comfort and edification of believers. In church observances the Bogomili were equally heterodox. They rejected baptism by water only, and made the cere mony consist of prayer, and of laying on the head of the convert the gospel (probably apocryphal) of St John, and the hands of the congregation. As they rejected the symbol of water in baptism so they refused to admit such symbolic rites as the Lord's supper, which they looked upon as an offering to evil spirits. They were averse to all images, even to the cross. The Bogomili suffered persecution from Alexius Comnenus, who put to death their leader Basilius, and they were condemned by a synod of Constantinople in 1140. They lingered on, however, in and about Philippopolis, and opinions nearly identical with theirs are to be met with among the later Catharists. (See the Church Histories of Neander and Gieseler.)

BOGOTA, or SANTA FÉ DE BOGOTA, the capital of the United States of Colombia, in South America, is situated in the state of Cundinamarca, in 4° 6' N. lat. and 78° 30′ W. long. It occupies a fine position at the base of the mountains La Guadalupe and Montserrato, on a table-land that forms part of the eastern ridge of the Andes, between the extensive valley of the Magdalena and the plains that are watered by part of the Orinoco system. The surrounding country is exceedingly fertile, and produces abundant crops of wheat and barley and the leguminous plants cultivated in Europe. The city of Bogota is the finest in the republic; its streets are well built, and run at right angles to each other; and within recent years most of them have been supplied with side pavements. The private houses are built of sun-dried bricks, and whitewashed; and owing to the prevalence of earthquakes they are mostly of one story in height. Of the streets the largest and finest is the Calle-Real or Calle de la Republica, which ends in a large square or plaza containing some of the chief buildings in the city. The cathedral, rebuilt in 1814, possesses very little external beauty; but its interior is fitted up with considerable elegance, its ornaments are rich and valuable, and the image of the Virgin, the patron saint, is covered with a profusion of precious stones. There are about thirty other churches in the city, but many of them are in a state of decay, while several of the monastic buildings are appropriated to secular uses,—the religious communities having been dissolved by Mosquera, and their revenues devoted in great measure to educational purposes. The convent of San Francisco is of great extent, and contains some of the productions of Vasquez, a native artist of merit. A large and elegant building-a capitol, for the reception of Congress and for the various offices of state-is now (1875) in course of erection. Besides the university there are three endowed colleges, a school of

chemistry and mineralogy, a national academy, a public | Dhupcháchiá, &c. A silk factory has been established at library, a botanic garden, and a military school, which Naodápárá, and is conducted with European capital, with an is supported out of the public funds, and has produced annual outlay of about £4500. The revenue and expendisome good engineers. The mint, one of the three in the ture of the district have steadily increased of late years. republic, is a large and handsome building, and is well In 1853 the total revenue of the district amounted to supplied with the necessary machinery. There are manu- £48,431, and the civil expenditure to £7282; in 1860, factures of soap, cloth, leather, and the precious metals; revenue £57,744, and civil expenditure £11,013; in 1870an active trade is carried on; and the neighbourhood is 71 the revenue had risen to £59,979. In 1870-71 the rich in minerals of various kinds. The population in 1800 district contained 1064 separate estates held by 2497 proamounted to 21,464, exclusive of strangers and temporary prietors, paying a total Government land revenue of £44,347. residents; in 1821 it was estimated at 30,000, and in 1870 The machinery for protecting person and property consists at about 52,000. Santa Fé de Bogota was founded in of six magisterial and six civil courts, with (1) a regular 1538 by Gonzalez Ximenes de Quesada, and received its police force, numbering 54 officers and 252 men, and costname from his birthplace Santa Fé, with the addition of ing Government £5975; (2), a rural constabulary or Bogota, in honour, it is said, of a native prince of that time. village watch, numbering 2552 men, and costing £6635, It soon increased in size and importance, and became the paid by the landholders and villagers; and (3), municipal capital of the Spanish vice-royalty of New Granada. In police, numbering 36 men, and costing £251. In 1871-72 1811 the citizens threw off the Spanish yoke and a republic there were 41 Government and aided schools in the district, was proclaimed; the city, however, in 1816, fell into the attended by 1492 pupils, and maintained at a total cost of hands of Murillo the Spanish general. Delivered by £1398, of which £692 was contributed by the state. The Bolivar in 1819 it was made capital of the republic of total number of aided and unaided schools in the district is Colombia; on the separation of the three states it remained returned in the census of 1872 at 169, attended by 1685 the chief city of New Granada, and it is now the capital pupils. The only town containing upwards of 5000 of the United States of Colombia, forming itself an inde- inhabitants in the district is Bográ, the administrative pendent federal territory. It is the seat of the supreme headquarters, situated on the Karatoya River; population court and the other offices of the Federal Government, and in 1872, 5872; municipal income, £282; expenditure, the residence of the foreign diplomatic representatives. £208; rate of taxation per head, 11d. There is one other municipality, Sherpur, formerly a place of importance when the East India Company had silk filatures in its neighbourhood. A great part of this town is now overgrown with jungle; the municipal income in 1869 was £246, the expenditure £174. The climate of Bográ is mild during the winter, but sultry and oppressive at other seasons. The average annual rainfall for the five years ending 1869 was 82 inches, and the average annual temperature 77° Fahr.

BOGRA, correctly BAGURA, a district in the Rájsháhí division, within the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, situated between 25° 20′ and 24° 20′ 28′′ N. lat., and 88° 55′ 30′′ and 89° 49′ 25′′ E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the districts of Dinajpur and Rangpur, on the E. by the districts of Rangpur and Maimansinh, on the S. by the district of Pabñá, and on the W. by the districts of Rajshahi and Dinajpur. The revenue area of the district in 1870 was 2000 square miles, of which 1750 were returned as under cultivation, 125 as cultivable but not actually cultivated, and 125 as uncultivable waste. The census of 1872 returned the police area of the district at 1500 square miles, and disclosed a population of 689,467 souls, of whom 556,620, or 80 per cent., were Mahometans; 130,644, or 19 per cent., Hindus; 22 Christians; and 2181 were classified as "others." Density of population in the census area, 59 per square mile. The district stretches out in a level plain, intersected by numerous streams and dotted with patches of jungle. The Karatoyá River flows from north to south, dividing the district into two portions, possessing very distinct characteristics. The eastern tract consists of rich alluvial soil, well watered, and subject to fertilizing inundations, yielding heavy crops of coarse rice, oilseeds, and jute. The western portion of the district is high-lying and produces the finer qualities of rice. The principal rivers are formed by the different channels of the Brahmaputra, which river here bears the local names of the Konái, the Dáokobá, and the Jamuna, the last forming a portion of the eastern boundary of the district. Its bed is studded with alluvial islands. The Brahmaputra and its channels, together with three minor streams, the Bángálí, Karatoyá, and Alai, afford admirable facilities for commerce, and render every part of the district accessible to native cargo boats of large burden. The rivers swarm with fish,-the value of the fisheries being estimated at £45,000 a year. The principal products of the district are rice, pease, pulses, oilseeds, jute, sugar-cane, mulberry, red pepper, and hemp for smoking (Cannabis indica). These products, together with clarified butter and a little silk, form the chief articles of export. The imports consist of salt, cloth, tobacco, areca-nuts, copper and brass utensils, spices, iron and piece goods. The chief trading markets are Bográ, Lakhmíganj, Buríganj,

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BOHADDIN, or, more properly, BOHA-EDDYN, an eminent Arabian writer and statesman, better known in the East under the appellation of IBN-SJEDDAD. He was born at Mosul 1145 A.D. (539 A.H.), and early became eminent in the study of the Koran, as well as in jurisprudence. At the age of twenty-seven he obtained the place of lecturer at Baghdad, and, soon after, a professor's chair at Mosul. In 1187 he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and then proceeded to visit Jerusalem and Hebron. In passing through Damascus he was sent for by Saladin, who was then employed in the siege of Kancab. Bohaddin observed, as he himself mentions (Vita Saladini, c. v.), that the whole soul of the monarch was engrossed by the war which he was then waging against the enemies of the faith, and saw that the only mode of acquiring his favour was by urging him to its vigorous prosecution. With this view he composed a treatise on the Laws and Discipline of Sacred War; and this work, on his return, he presented to Saladin, who received it with peculiar favour. Bohaddin, from this time, remained constantly attached to the person of the sultan, and was employed in various important embassies and departments of civil government. He was also appointed judge of the army, and judge of Jerusalem. After Saladin's death Bohaddin was active in securing the throne to his son, Melik-al-Dhaker, and was by that prince created cadi of Aleppo. He then founded a college in that city of which he himself was the principal professor. When Melik-alDhaker died, his son Melik-al-Aziz was a minor, and Bohaddin obtained the principal sway in the regency. This gave him an opportunity of introducing learned men at court, and loading them with honours. As the prince, however, approached to manhood, Bohaddin, though he still retained his offices, found it expedient to retire from court. Even after he was unable to go to college, he continued to

give lectures in his own house; and he persevered in these | learned labours till the age of ninety, when he died 1235 A.D. (633 A.H.) Bohaddin wrote on jurisprudence and Muslim divinity; but his principal work is his Life of Saladin, which, with several other pieces connected with the same subject, was published by Schultens, at Leyden, in 1732, accompanied by a Latin translation, with notes and a geographical index. This work affords a favourable specimen of the historical compositions of the Arabs. It is written with some spirit, and yet is free from that inflation which so frequently disfigures Oriental composition. Whatever relates to Saladin breathes the highest tone of panegyric; yet the enthusiasm with which everything concerning him is narrated, and the anecdotes which the author, from his personal knowledge, is able to communicate respecting that extraordinary character, give his work a great degree of interest.

BOHEMIA (German BÖHMEN or BÖHEIM), a kingdom of the Austrian empire, situated between 48° 33' and 51° 4′ N. lat., and 12° 5′ and 16° 25′ W. long., and bounded on the N. by Saxony and Prussian Silesia, E. by Moravia, S. by Upper and Lower Austria, and W. by Bavaria. Its area is estimated at 19,983 square miles. It belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Elbe, which rises within the territory, and is joined by the Adler, the Iser, the Moldau, and the Eger before it passes the frontier. The boundaries are pretty clearly marked by mountain ranges on all sides, the Böhmerwald dividing the country from Bavaria, the Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge from Saxony and Silesia, and the Moravian Hills from the basin of the Danube. The climate is healthy, but varies considerably in different districts; the soil in many parts is highly fertile, and grain of various kinds, potatoes, hops, flax, hemp, vines, and fruits are extensively cultivated. In 1870 there were 6,205,161 acres of ploughed land, 2656 in vineyards, 1,560,321 in gardens and meadows, 995,340 in pasture, and 3,749,411 in woodland. At the same date the number of horses in the country was 189,337, cattle 1,602,015, sheep 1,106,290, goats 194,273, swine 228,180, and bee-hives 140,892. The mineral productions comprise gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, iron, cobalt, bismuth, arsenic, sulphur, coal, alum, vitriol, and different sorts of stone. In 1870 there were obtained 156 cwt. of gold-ore, 1245 of silver-ore, 225,536 tons of iron, 999 tons of lead, 2274 of tin, 61 tons of antimony, and 111 of arsenic-ore. The quantity of coal and lignite amounted to 4,099,909 tons. The mineral springs of Bohemia-Carlsbad, Teplitz, Marienbad, and Franzensbrunn, &c. are justly famous. The industry of the kingdom is highly developed in various directions. Most important of all is the manufacture of woollen goods, principally carried on at Reichenberg and in the neighbourhood. The cotton manufacture is also extensively prosecuted in the same district; and at Rumburg and other places linen stuffs are largely produced. Bohemian glass has been celebrated for centuries, and is still exported to all parts of Europe. Porcelain and earthenware of different sorts, iron and steel wares, copper, tin, and pewter articles, wooden wares, chemical stuffs, and paper are all the objects of a considerable industry. Beetroot sugar is pretty largely manufactured, the refineries numbering 126 in 1870. At At the same date there were 968 breweries in the country, and 324 brandy distilleries. The chief commercial city is the capital, Prague; but Reichenberg, Pilsen, Haida, Rumburg, Leitmeritz, and Budweis are all important centres. Bohemia is divided into twelve circles-Prague, Budweis, Pisek, Pilsen, Eger, Saaz, Leitmeritz, Bunzlau, Jiczin, Königgrätz, Chrudim, Czaslau, and Tabor, and these are subdivided into 91 departments. In 1869 there were 372 towns, 226 smaller market-towns, and 12,551 villages. The number of inhabited houses in the whole country amounted to

632,404; and the total population was 5,106,069, of whom 2,433,629 were males, and 2,672,440 females. The census of 1869 took no count of nationality, but according to Ficker in his Die Völkerstämme der OesterreichischUngarischen Monarchie, there are 20 of German race for 32 of Slavonic. By far the greater part of the population (4,940,898) belongs to the Roman Catholic Church; while only 3438 are members of the Greek Church, 106,115 Protestants, and 89,933 Jews. The country constitutes an archbishopric, and is divided into three bishoprics. In 1870 there were 140 ecclesiastical foundations, with endowments amounting to £65,726. At the head of the educational establishments is the University of Prague, with four faculties, and attended in 1871 by 1516 students. There are upwards of 4000 ordinary schools in rather more than the half of which Czech is spoken, 26 gymnasiums, 4 theological seminaries, and several institutions for special departments of the arts and sciences. Bohemia derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic race History. expelled from the country by the Marcomanni, who, after establishing a considerable kingdom under Marbod and being converted to Christianity, were in their turn supplanted by the Slavonic race, which is still predominant. The new comers were in danger of expulsion or conquest by the Avars, but were defended and established, according to their own possibly mythical account, by the heroic Samo; and somewhat later, as the story goes, his place was filled by the good knight Krok, whose daughter Libussa, marrying Premysl, became the founder of a regular dynasty. Bohemia was for a time absorbed in the great Carlovingian monarchy, but soon reasserted its independence. In the course of the 9th century Christianity was introduced. Under Boleslas I. the bounds of Bohemia were extended and its unity secured; but after a vigorous defence he had to recognize the overlordship of Otto I. of Germany. Under his grandchildren his kingdom fell to pieces; a Polish conquest followed, and the restoration of the native dynasty was only effected by the help of Henry II. of Germany. In 1086 Wratislas II. received the title of king from the emperor for himself; and Premysl Ottocar I. (1197-1230) became the founder of a hereditary series of kings. He was a bold defender of his independence, and at the same time gave great encouragement to German immigration. By the introduction of the right of primogeniture in the succession to the throne, he put an end to the disputes and contests which so often followed the death of a king. In 1241 his son and successor was the successful defender of Europe against a Mongolian invasion; but he was eclipsed by Ottocar II. (1253-1278), who added greatly by conquest to the extent of his dominions, and made himself a formidable rival to the emperor himself. The Premysl dynasty was at last extinguished in 1306; and after a few years of uncertainty and dissatisfaction the Bohemian crown was bestowed on John of Luxembourg (son of the Emperor Henry VII.), who thus became the founder of a dynasty which lasted till 1437. This warlike and prosperous monarch was succeeded by his son Charles I., who obtained the imperial dignity as Charles IV., and left Bohemia in a flourishing and influential position at his death in 1378. Under his successors, who fell far below the character of their ancestor, the country was thrown into confusion by the Hussite reformation, which resulted in a protracted war (1419-1434). The success of the reforming party led to an elective monarchy, and after various vicissitudes, George of Podiebrad mounted the throne in 1458; and in spite of Papal bull and Hungarian arms maintained his position till his death in 1471. His successor, the Polish prince Ladislas, ultimately obtained also the crown of Hungary; but under him and his son Louis (1517-1526) the nobility made themselves more and

Literature.

more independent of the king, and the common people were crushed deeper into serfdom. On the death of Louis, in a battle against the Turks at Mohacz, Bohemia passed into the hands of Ferdinand of Austria, who treated the kingdom in the most despotic manner, and in 1547 declared it a hereditary possession. He was followed in succession by his son Maximilian II. and his grandson Rudolph II., who left the country as distracted as they found it. The son of Matthias, the next king, was rejected by the Protestant party, which chose in his stead Frederick V. of the Palatinate; but the victory at the White Mountain in 1620 left Bohemia at the mercy of the emperor, who inflicted a terrible vengeance on his enemies, and in 1627 declared the country a purely Catholic and hereditary kingdom of the empire. Owing to this no fewer than 30,000 families are said to have gone into exile and the population of the country was reduced to 800,000. On the death of Charles VI. Charles Albert of Bavaria laid claim to the crown, which continued to be an object of dispute though the Silesian campaigns and the Seven Years' War, but was successfully defended by Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II. The country was greatly benefited in many ways by the government of that monarch; but he destroyed the independence of the royal towns, and treated the whole land as a mere province of the empire. Its religious condition was considerably improved, however, by an edict of toleration published in 1781. Under the succeeding reigns the circumstances of Bohemia underwent but little alteration, and it was hardly affected by the first French Revolution. In 1848, however, a determined "national" movement agitated the country. The demands of the Liberal party gradually increased, and nothing short of a full share in the constitutional government of their country would suffice. The movement was not confined to Bohemia, but spread through the whole Austrian empire, to the article on which (p. 137 of the present volume) the reader is referred. (See Freher, Rerum Bohemicarum Antiqui Scriptores, 1602; Dobner, Monumenta Historica, 1764-68; Pelzel, Geschichte der Böhmen, 1817; Palacky, Geschichte von Böhmen, 1839; Jordan, Geschichte des böhm. Volks und Landes, 1845-47.)

The Bohemians or Czechs speak a Slavonic language, which has been subjected to literary culture from about (if not before) the 9th century. A few fragments of a pre-Christian literature have been preserved in a manuscript discovered by Hanka in 1817 in the church-steeple of Königinhof; but the first productions of any extent are due to the activity of the early German Christians, and are composed for the most part in the Latin language. Against this powerful exotic speech the vernacular had a long and dubious struggle, especially in the ecclesiastical domain, and it was still striving against its encroachments when the political circumstances of the nation exposed it to the more dangerous, because more popular and less artificial, rivalry of German. From the court and the capital outward over the nobility and the country there spread a Germanizing energy that at first seemed likely to destroy everything that was distinctively Bohemian; but here and there the national language and customs were fostered and preserved by a few patriotic spirits, among whom the monks of the Slavonic monastery of Sazawa were especially conspicuous. At length the native language obtained the imperial patronage (under Charles IV.) Dalimil wrote his Rhyming Chronicle of Bohemia (1314); and translations began to be made from Latin and other languages. Among these were Mandeville's Travels; and about the end of the 14th century a complete version of the Scriptures, the manuscript of which is preserved at Nikolsburg in Moravia. Thomas Stitny the domestic moralist, Duba the jurist, and Flaska the didactic poet,

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deserve to be mentioned as original writers. The next generation saw the attempts at once at religious and at linguistic reform that came to so sad an end in the burning of John Huss and the persecutions that followed. The Bohemian language was, indeed, brought into general use and served the disputants of both sides; but little was consigned to its keeping except the ephemeral productions of ecclesiastical and political strife. A large collection of these works, saved from destruction by the invading Swedes, is still preserved in the library of Stockholm. Of more permanent interest may be mentioned Paul Zidek's History of the World, written for George of Podiebrad; the interesting travels of Leo of Rosmital and his companions through various countries of Europe; and those of Kabatnik in Egypt and Asia Minor, and of John of Lobkowitz in Palestine. The 16th century saw a remarkable development of Bohemian prose in various departments of literature. Weleslawin, Paprocky, and Hayck of Liboczun wrote popular histories; Wratislas of Mitrovic and Prefat of Wlkanow gave accounts of their travels; and Nicolas Konec, Dobrensky, and Lomnicky produced didactic works of different kinds. A valuable translation of the Bible was published at Kralitz in Moravia by eight learned Bohemian Brethren at the instigation of John of Zerotin; and various versions of the classics appeared from time to time. A long period of literary decadence followed the battle of the White Mountain in 1620. The best blood of the nation went into exile, and what Bohemian literature was produced appeared for the most part in foreign cities. In 1774 a severe blow was struck at the native language by Maria Theresa's imperial decree which enforced the use of German in the higher and middle schools of the country. Before long, however, the defence of the mother tongue was taken up by Count Kinsky, Hanka of Hankenstein, the historian Pelzel, and the Jesuit Balbin,-by the last mentioned in a Dissertatio apologetica pro lingua Bohemica. The language became the object of the scientific investigations of Dobrowsky, and the remains of the early periods were edited by Dobner, Prochazka, and other philologists. A chair of the Bohemian language was founded in the University of Prague, and in 1818 a Bohemian museum was established in connection with a society that devoted itself to the study of national antiquities, and published a valuable journal. Puchmayer (1795-1820) gave an impulse to national poetry, and has been succeeded by Langer, Roko, Wocel, Schneider, Czelakowsky, and Kollar, and a great number of other writers. In the department of science Presl, Sadek. Amerling, Smetana, Petcina, Sloboda, and Opiz have attained distinction. Grammars of the Czech language have been produced by Burian, Hanka, Maly, Sembera, and Tomicek; Sumawsky published a great GermanBohemian dictionary; Spatny, a Bohemian-German and German-Bohemian technological dictionary; and Jungmann a large Bohemian-German lexicon. The names of even the prominent writers in philosophy, theology, and politics are too numerous to be mentioned. (See Schafarik's Slavisch Alterthümer, 1842, and Geschichte der Slav. Sprache, 1826; Jungmann's Geschichte der Böhm. Sprache und Literatur, 1825.)

BOHEMOND, MARC, one of the leaders of the Crusades, born about 1056, was the eldest son of Robert Guiscard, a Norman, who had obtained by conquest the dukedom of Apulia and Calabria. From 1081 to 1085 he served under his father in a war against the Byzantine emperor Alexander Comnenus, whom he twice defeated, though he had to return to Italy without reaping any substantial fruits of his success. In 1085 his father died, leaving Apulia and Calabria to a younger son, while Bohemond obtained only the small principality of Tarentum. A war between the

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