appear to intermingle and entwine about one another in a manner truly serpentine. To attempt to determine whether this or that particular pair of rails ultimately leads to any especial locality, is beyond the limits of one's optical organs. Even when they are assisted by an engine and a train of waggons the task is not rendered less difficult, since other trains cross before and behind, converge, diverge, and run parallel, so that all individual distinction becomes impracticable. The trains enter the park by the gate placed in the angle formed by the avenue of Suffren and the Quai d'Orsay; they then cross the north-east portion of the Champ de Mars, and find themselves on the main line, so to speak, which runs round the whole exterior of the palace. Upon this main line, opposite each entrance to the building, turntables are fixed which allow the waggons to be transferred to any of the sixteen lines traversing the interior of the palace. By this arrangement, the goods intended for exhibition can be unloaded at the very stalls where they are to be displayed. When once the construction of the building is so far completed as to permit of the arrival of the articles for exhibition, the first step is to establish a direct means of communication with all the authorities and agents connected with the several departments. In a very short time this important step will be accomplished. The post-office will be situated close to that of the Imperial Commission, which is in the south-eastern part of the park. It has been erected with great rapidity, and will very soon be ready for the occupants. A portion of one of the wings of the post-office will be devoted to the use of the telegraphs, and a second telegraph-office is to be established in the international circle.

the wave in the midst of the roar of the explo-
sion, and the brilliant glare of the illumination.
We consider it would be rather a difficult mat-
ter, under such peculiar circumstances, to
arrive at any conclusion respecting the effect
of the harpoon upon a real whale.

that could be made of the materials at the command of man. The one is a finite, the other an infinite series. Many great and valuable discoveries have unquestionably been the result of accident, or have arisen from fortuitous circumstances, over which the discoverer had no control. At the same time others have been made after a vast amount of labour, money, and time was expended in the search, and when there was a priori a determination to arrive at the knowledge ultimately attained.

Whilst on the subject of the Paris Exhibition, it may be as well to observe that the punctuality of the opening of the British portion is endangered by the backwardness of many exhibitors. We would, therefore, point out the necessity of a strict adherence to the dates specified for the reception of goods. The Amongst the latter, and intimately conBritish Executive have given notice that all nected with the welfare of the human race, may objects of great bulk should now be in the be classed the discovery of all sources of pure building. All other exhibits must be in their water, whether existing as lakes, rivers, or places by the 1st of March, with the exception springs. This last source, although scarcely to be of jewellery and textile fabrics, which may relied upon for ensuring a constant supply for a arrive up to the 10th of March. If an exhibitor large city, is still the favourite and often the has failed to commence the fittings he would only one available for the supply of small require by the 20th of February, it will be towns and villages, especially upon the Conconcluded that he does not intend to occupy tinent and in less civilised parts of the globe. the allotment, which would then be placed at Among the varieties of natural springs encounthe disposal of one of the numerous applicants tered in different localities, there is a peculiar desirous of obtaining space in the Exhibition. class called land-springs, which are met with As we know that many of our readers are ex-in rocks near the surface, possessing a loose hibitors, we trust they will use their best exer- and friable nature, and not overlaid by impertions in contributing to ensure the punctual meable strata. These springs never rise opening of the British section of the Exhibition. above the surface of the stratum where they If, however, exhibitors in general fail to push occur, and are in this respect distinguished matters on with sufficient spirit, they will im- from those which have received the name of peril their best interests, for there are penalties artesian, the latter term being derived from to be paid for backwardness. We find that to the province of Artois in France, where nearly prevent inconvenience to punctual exhibitors seven centuries ago it was the practice to obtain from the delays of those who are not punctual, large supplies of water by boring into the and to remove misapprehensions which appear earth down to a certain point, in localities to exist, that the opening of the Exhibition will where there was not the slightest indication be deferred to a later date than the 1st of upon the surface to reveal the valuable April, M. Rouher, Minister of State and Vice- qualities of the strata beneath. A somewhat President of the Imperial Commission, has extraordinary method of discovering the existissued an order to the effect that the Imperial ence of springs concealed beneath the surface Commission will proceed on the 11th of March of the earth has been lately put into execution to survey the various allotments, and will draw by M. Rautureau, who has forwarded the apup a list of the exhibitors whose goods have paratus employed in the search to the Paris not been brought within the Champ de Mars. Exhibition. It consists of a pair of hollow The juries of the various classes will proceed callipers with steel legs, upon one of which is on the 29th of March to a general inspection, fixed a hydroscopical compass, and, in explorand they will prepare a list of exhibitors whose ing the ground, they are held upright with the The rationale is that nine fittings and cases are not completed and fur- legs extended." nished with objects. The penalty is that the persons out of ten are capable of generating exhibitors mentioned on these two lists will a sufficient amount of electricity to render this not be admitted to compete for rewards. The little apparatus sensible to every watercourse, Commissary-General, Councillor of State, is whether visible or invisible, its effect being charged with the execution of the decree. We in strict conformity to the physical law, that would, therefore, sound the note of warning two parallel currents of electricity attract or to our friends-The Exhibition has been a repulse one another accordingly as they are long time in course of preparation, and every of the same nature or the reverse. one ought to be ready. author states that with this instrument one can easily discover all subterranean courses of water, and by employing a magnetic needle

Those who have hired stalls in the international circle have already commenced to take possession of them. The Imperial Commission has strictly forbidden the sale of any articles in this part of the palace; but at the same time, as it desires that strangers and visitors should have the opportunity of purchasing whatever articles they might fancy, it has permitted the ground floor of this department to be fitted up with shops for the express purpose of selling the different commodities with which they are furnished. These shops or stores are erected in two handsome galleries, well lighted, and situated on each side of a passage which will be traversed by all those arriving at the Exhibition by either train or steamers, and will, moreover, be a place of shelter when it rains. Under these circumstances, it must be confessed, it would be difficult to choose a locality better situated with regard to advantages for doing a good business. THE MECHANICAL DISCOVERY OF their depths, capacity, direction, and the

An excellent chance is thus afforded to tradesmen and others for creating a business if they

THE

SPRINGS.

it, if they and fortunate on, and for extending present is essentially an age of inven

are enough to be already in possession of one. That many will visit the Paris Exhibition for amusement alone, there is not the slightest doubt; but many will also, unquestionably, visit it for instruction alone; and fortunately, as it is amply provided with means to satisfy the desire of both classes of visitors, they will both be equally pleased. We may quote the following, where an attempt is made to conbine scientific instruction with amusement :-"The Isle of Billancourt has been selected as the theatre for all the regattas, hydraulic experiments, and, in fact, for everything connected with water that may take place during the opening of the palace. A new species of harpoon, destined to be employed in the whale fishery, is to undergo a test of its merits and capabilities, after the following manner :-At a considerable distance from the island, in the middle of the Seine, a huge dummy whale is to be moored, and, like the Trojan horse, hollow inside. Instead, however, of carrying armed men, its cavity is to be filled with fireworks. The harpoon tired from a carbine on a new principle, will fix itself deep into the flanks of the enormous monster, will penetrate into the combustible material, and the whale will disappear beneath

The

exact spot where to bore for them, can be ascertained with equal precision. The apparatus

will also serve, to indicate the existence of tion. Contrasting with former times metals and coal, but by inserting in each of the it would appear as if the imaginative facul- branches a ring of a certain material known ties of the existing generation, instead of fol- only to the designer, it confines its indications lowing the flowery paths of poetical unsub- to water alone. All weathers are not equally stantiality so much delighted in by the favourable to the display of the powers of ancients, had been altogether diverted into this little instrument, which undergoes periothe channels of utilitarianism. Granted that dical interruptions and suspensions in a the fine arts have reached a point of decadence, manner analogous to that in which electrical from which they can never rise to their pris- machines are affected. It is possible that the tine position-granted that we have lost the presence of ozone or electrified oxygen is esinspiration of the unreal, we have at any rate sential to the correct performance of this inin exchange received that of the real. Dis-vention of M. Rautureau, since he remarked covery and invention proceed pari passu, although the former must necessarily precede the latter. Besides the difference in the signification of the terms, the one implying the attainment of the knowledge of that which existed coeval with the world's creation, the other of that which had no previous existence, there is another important distinction to be observed. There is a limit to discovery; there is none to invention. It is possible to conceive a time in the future history of the earth-in fact, we have the highest authority for predicting its advent-when everything created will have been discovered. Not so with invention; it is impossible to imagine the accomplishment of every combination

that during the continuance of the cholera it
never gave any but few and feeble indications.
Several wells have been sunk upon its autho-
rity and in all cases with success, the water
in some instances springing up to the surface
of the ground.
well has been sunk near the true source of a
spring or not is to observe the quality of the
water which is procured. If it is dirty and
disagreeable to the taste it is a certain sign
that it has not been taken near the source, or
it would on the contrary be pure and limpid,
agreeable to the taste, and, what is more bene-
ficial, to the health. Notwithstanding the
apparently favourable results which are stated
to have attended the use of the apparatus in

An excellent test whether a

question, we should not be inclined to assume the responsibility of vouching for its value. It certainly seems a very easy matter to decide, for nothing more is required than to take the instrument over both descriptions of ground where water is known to be and not to be, and then register the indications it gives. Bearing in mind the paramount importance of ascertaining whether water is procurable in certain localities, any attempt to facilitate the discovery of so valuable a treasure deserves a trial, but the means employed by M. Rautureau, although simple in appearance and design, depend upon so subtle an influence that it is difficult to put faith in their general utility and application.

TUNNELLING MACHINES.

tains an account of the manner in which the
The last number of Dingler's Journal, con-
peculiar granulated gilding of the Swiss watch-
work is accomplished.
brasswork is first polished smooth, then cleaned
It is said that the
with a scratch brush and lightly gilded. The
pieces are then well brushed with a thin paste
composed of 1 part of silver powder, 6
parts common salt, and 3 parts spirits of
wine. The longer the brushing is continued,
the coarser the granulations become; a minute
is usually sufficient for the operation. The
scratch brush is now applied again to get a
brilliant surface, and lastly, the pieces are
gilded by the galvanic process.

through the medium of water, but not so fre-
We are accustomed to hear of lead poisoning
quently through that water, but, farmise,
however, has recently referred to a novel
source of lead poisoning which exists in the
painted woodwork obtained from the demoli-
tion of old houses. On being used for fuel it
gives off smoke charged with lead; which, says
M. Marmise, may be disseminated and taken
in with the breath. Five out of ten dealers in
old panellings in the city of Bordeaux, are
stated to have suffered more or less from lead

NOTES ON RECENT SCIENTIFIC DIS-colic; and in some instances the metal has been
COVERIES AND THEIR PRACTICAL found deposited in the chimnies of those fire-
APPLICATIONS.
places in which old woodwork has been burnt.
Another Explosive Compound-Lucifer Matches It is also said that the handling of freshly-
without Phosphorus-Bisulphide of Carbon printed journals, inasmuch as the ink contains
in Light Petroleum Oils and Benzol-Gild-litharge, may also account for the existence of
ing of Swiss Watchwork-Lead Poisoning.
symptoms clearly referable to the injurious in-
fluence of lead.

A

NOTES ON OUR NAVY. IKE Rip Van Winkle I have awakened from have taken place in my profession during the a long sleep, and find that great changes interval. Ironclads, which were looked on a

way, and water power has been applied to announcement of the fact we have seen, and it work it with considerable advantage. In the deserves attention. The same author asserts hardest rocks a velocity of three and a quarter that the ordinary benzol of commerce contains feet can be obtained per hour. Until a system traces of the same impurity. of tunnelling machinery is introduced which will carry on its work effectually and rapidly, it is vain to expect lines of railway with good gradients in a mountainous district. So long as we are compelled to go over the mountains instead of under them, so long shall we have lines of which the working expenses will always absorb the greater part of the profits. As the Mont Cenis tunnel is now half completed we may reasonably look forward to its successful termination. When that is accomplished, there is very little doubt but that others of a greater length will be undertaken, and it will be a wonder indeed if the next of the same magnitude is not got through in much less time. All the scientific and prac HE conviction that hand labour is becoming tical experience acquired during the perforation daily viction the more inadequate to the of the present one will produce but very little successful execution of the arduous and fruit if it does not render undertakings of a gigantic engineering undertakings of the pre- similar character more sure and more speedy in sent time, is too palpably impressed upon our future. The time will unquestionably arrive minds to admit of controversion. It is not when the lines now being made with such that works as great and perhaps greater have terribly steep gradients in India and other hilly not been completed in other ages than the pre-districts will be all literally undermined by sent by the sole aid of manual labour, but time others running through instead of over the was not then the chief object as it is now. The question is not the absolute possibility of ground. a work being carried out by hand labour, but the possibility of its being done within a certain period. We cannot afford in the nineteenth century to wait a moment; the quickest way is the best, and all other considerations must give place to that predominating opinion. Of all works in connection with railways, canals, or other engineering enterprises of similar magnitude a tunnel presents the greatest NEW gunpowder has been proposed by obstacle to "getting on." The amount of Dr. Borlinetto. It is composed of ten space to work in is limited, and consequently parts of nitrate of potash, ten parts of picric the maximum of labour that can be employed acid, and eight and a half parts of bichromate in it is soon attained. When the tunnel can of potash. These ingredients must be sepa-L only be attacked at its two faces, that is, when rately reduced to a very fine powder, and then from the great height of the surface of ground intimately mixed. It is difficult to see what above it or from other local circumstances, one advantages this powder can be supposed to or more shafts cannot be sunk, the obstacles have over ordinary gunpowder. We notice to its speedy perforation become multiplied also the discovery by the same gentleman of few years since with distrust and doubt, now comin an enormously increasing ratio. English, the explosiveness of a mixture of chlorate of pose the principal means of offence and defence American, French, and many inventors of potash and tannic or gallic acid. This fact of all great maritime powers. other nationalities, have from time to time has been discovered so often that it may be of creased in size almost indefinitely, and, worked Artillery has in exercised their inventive powers in the construction of tunnelling machines, which may first in 1857 offered to our Government an manageable under circumstances when the old use to state that Mr. Horsley, of Cheltenham, by the powerful aid of machinery, bids fair to be be said to be still in their infancy although explosive mixture composed of chlorate of rapidly developing every day. potash and powdered galls. In 1862, Mr. system of breechings and tackles would utterly The perforation of the tunnel through Mont Horsley published an account of his composi- fail. The great end to be attained now in the Cenis, which is now rather more than half tion in the Chemical News. In 1865, a similar construction of a war vessel appears to be exemp accomplished, has undoubtedly furnished a composition made some noise for a time in the tion from rolling, and it must be admitted that powerful stimulant to the inventors of this newspapers, and the inventor, Mr. Ehrardt, a the performance of a large majority of the description of machinery, the principal ad- German, applied for a patent for it in this Channel squadron was far from satisfactory. vantages of which consist in diminishing the country. Last year the discovery seems to danger from explosions, and slips of the material have been made again in Italy; but as in all for- Shot fired from the guns of a ship which may be through which the tunnel is excavated, and in mer cases, no practical application of the com-rolling through an arc of 30 are useless, even diminishing the toil and contributing to the pound has been made, because of the uncon- supposing such a feat to be accomplished. It is well being of the miner. All tunnelling ma-trollable violence of the explosion. chines may be divided into two classes; the not my intention to discuss here the merits of Although the use of amorphous phos- the question of turret versus broadside first comprising those which are provided with phorus has greatly mitigated the dangers of perience in actual warfare, under various condi ; ex. steel perforators, and the second those which lucifer-match making, a good composition in are armed with a material harder than the rock which no phosphorus is employed is still a tions, can only settle it. Probably both may be through which they have to force their way. desideratum. The former act by simple percussion, and the Technology gives a recipe for such a comThe third edition of Kapp's required. I have long been of opinion that the latter by grinding. Machines of the latter position which is said to answer well. It is a battle. With this in prospective naval architects stem will settle the fate of many a future naval description must therefore necessarily be fur- mixture of three parts of sulphide of antimony, will act wisely by strengthening the bow of war nished with rows of diamonds; and a patent 16 parts chlorate of potash, 1 part bichromate ships in an extraordinary manner, thus renderhas been taken out at Paris by M. Lescho, for of potash, 10 parts of red lead, 8 parts nitro-ig it a formidable weapon of offence. a machine so provided. Fortunately it is not mannite, 4 parts of powdered glass, and 5 elongated under water is a fatal error in a ram, necessary to employ diamonds of the first parts of gum. The novelty in this composition as it would throw the shock of a collision too water, but an inferior kind imported from the is the introduction of nitromannite, which no much on one section of the hull. Isle of Borneo will answer the purpose equally doubt makes the match more easily ignited. stem makes a stronger bow, from the facilities it effectively. The perforating part of the ma- All the matches without phosphorus hitherto offers for securing the foremost plates, distri chine consists of an iron tube terminated by a proposed have failed because of the difficulty of butes the concussion more uniformly, and strikes steel ring, in which is inserted a number of getting them to ignite, and the nitromannite with prodigious force. I have seen a firm screw black diamonds. A combined motion of rota- probably obviates this difficulty. Nitromannite piled jetty seriously influenced by the stem of an tion or progression is imparted to the tube, is not yet, we think, an article of commerce, ordinary merchant steamer, while she escaped causing the diamonds to bore into the rock in but it is easily prepared by treating mannite without a broken rivet. On another occasion I a manner similar to that in which an auger with nitric acid, or a mixture of nitric and several yards back from the same cause. The saw the massive granite coping of a wharf sent pierces a piece of wood. The iron tube re-sulphuric acid, in the same way as cotton for elongated bow must also pile a large wave before ceives the borings, which are detached by a the manufacture of gun cotton. blow of a hammer. This machine has been it, and increase the tendency to carry weather helm, a failing which all long screw ships have used with success in the perforation of the with a beam wind, with or without sail. tunnel of Tarare upon the Bourbonnais Rail

Huger states that the lighter American petroleum oils contain a considerable amount of bisulphide of carbon. This is the first

The bow

A vertical

Sailors will always disagree about the rig of

these leviathans. A part believe that royal yards and topgallant studding sails are necessary. Others ignore sail, would fix the propeller and send sailoring to the grave of the Capets. Sail judiciously managed is a wonderful auxiliary to steam. The engines gratefully acknow. ledge the assistance. Their heavy labouring note is changed to one of lighter mood, and the ship feels under one's feet, as she would do with the weather braces rounded in after a long reach on a bowline. As a motive power staysails and trysails are invaluable in steamships; where they are not freely used justice is not rendered to the engines. Square sail is indispensable in running before a heavy sea, because the engines cannot be driven at a high rate of speed, under such circumstances, even when checked in racing by a governor. Ships of the "Minotaur" class should do well with four masts, two square-rigged in the centre, the others with fore and aft canvas only on booms with travelling hoops. The iron masts of English men-of-war are the ugliest in the world; neither are they constructed on strictly mechanical principles, an equal diameter being preserved throughout their length from deck to tressle-trees. The doublings are sometimes painfully short (see "Bellerophon's"), and the neck connecting the circular hole for the topmast with the lower masthead so long that an interval of a foot or more is frequently left between the mast and the housing of the topmast. Apart from the offence to the eye is the fact, that the topmast acts as a powerful lever to wring the head of the lower mast. Sheaves for the top tackle pendants are generally inserted in this neck, but in power they are inferior to the ordinary top block, as their diameter is necessarily contracted, and they cannot follow the line of greatest strain.

A NEW PSYCHROMETER.

AT last week's sitting of the Academy of

rest assured that the strongest framing will not
prevent a ship from being severely shaken, if
struck by heavy artillery. When this occurs
leakage will follow, and a formidable pumping Sciences, M. Becquerel, sen., described a
party must be told off when their services can new psychrometer, so modified as to act by elec-
ill be spared. Probably no manual labour is so tricity, and which he considers a most valuable
wearisome or depressing as long-continued instrument for climatoligical purposes. The old
pumping, and in bad weather, when men's foot-psychrometer is composed of two thermometers,
ing is uncertain, it is peculiarly so. In such the bulb of one of which is dry, while that of the
an hour one steam pump would do the work of other is kept constantly moist. The temperature
many relays of men. The steam might be sup- of the latter diminishes continually until it
plied from the main boilers or by a separate reaches a certain minimum. The observer then
one. It would also tend much towards keep- takes the readings of both thermometers; then
ing the crew in health if the lower deck were the atmospheric pressure; and these three data
heated by small steam pipes running fore and are sufficient to determine the elastic force of the
aft. In iron ships the air is rapidly condensed agreous particles contained in the atmosphere by
during cold weather, covering the sides and means of a formula found by August and modi-
under part of the deck with globules of water; fied by Regnault. According to Galignani, M.
the technical term is "sweating." The old. Becquerel substitutes for the two thermometers
fashioned, detestable swinging stoves, are still a thermo-electric circuit composed of iron and
used to dry the decks, or, more correctly speak copper wire of a diameter dependent on their
ing, officers essay to dry them by that means, lengths; the longer they are the greater is their
for beyond a small dry circle around the smoky diameter. Within this circuit there is a galvano-
abomination nothing is effected beyond half meter provided with a short wire, and intended
smothering all around. In fitting the iron to show when the temperature is the same at
tillers round the rudder stocks, single keys both the points where the metals have been sol-
appear only to be used. Such an arrangement dered together. One of these points is placed in
answers perfectly on the shaft of an engine,
a medium, the temperature of which is lowered
because the motion is uniform; but when con-
until the needle of the galvanometer returns to
stantly jerked with more or less violence in
bad weather, it is simply a question of time to at both points, this result being independent on
zero, in which case the temperature is the same
wear the keyway of. The cruizing of iron-
the magnetism of the needle; the only condition
clads has not yet extended over a sufficient
period of time to render this defect apparent, requisite being, that the zero of the scale remain
but it is one which, trifling as it may appear, The second point of junction is placed in the me-
unchanged in the course of the observation.
well deserves the attention of the authorities.
dium contained in the aqueous vapour, the
elastic force of which is to be determined. Thie
apparatus, however, cannot be employed until
set right, so to say, by comparing it with the
common psychrometer, an operation requiring a
With its assist-
series of preliminary trials.
ance M. Becquerel has ascertained the elastic
force of aqueous vapour at an altitude of three
metres above the surface of the soil, at the top of
a lime tree, and at the surface of a river.

I observe with some surprise that the surface condensing engines with which a great number of her Majesty's ships are fitted are The catheads still occupy the same position as without fit condensers. Now circulating pumps they did in the wood sailing ships, thus render-will break, and surface condensers do get out ing it compulsory to keep the anchors always of order, and when such occurs it is very satisover the bows. Such a plan answers very well factory to have the engine ready for working under all the ordinary circumstances of cruizing, in an hour or less afterwards. Similar remarks when the engines can be eased or sail reduced will apply to the absence of sludge boxes from to meet the increasing wind and sea. But the the bilge pumps of the engine. In bad weather day may not be far distant when English ships many engineers have found the pumps choked of war will have to chase to windward in the by round balls composed of grease and coalteeth of a gale; and when it does come our seadust. Indeed, it is hardly possible to make a men should be enabled to hail such an arena as passage across the Atlantic in bad weather their vantage ground, like their fathers did of old. An anchor weighing seven tons on either bow, with a proportionate quantity of cable to each, would be found a most serious encum. brance at such a time, for the force of a heavy head sea is almost irresistible. I may add that in sudden emergencies hawse holes on the main or lower decks are highly objectionable. It is an acknowledged fact that the Italian ironclad 66 Affondatore foundered from this

cause.

People may remark that they were unusual low in that unfortunnate ship. Admit the fact,

hawse holes.

without their forming. These entirely choke
up the pumps, but are arrested by a sludge
box on their passage, and cleared out in a few
seconds. I can observe many other things
which might be altered with advantage, but I
reserve them for future notice.

A NAVAL OFFICER.

THE SOLDIER'S SPOT.

WE hope that the ingenuity of the military au

thorities in inventing and largely distributing a peculiar form of heart diseases, for the special behoof of our soldiers, will be duly appre ciated by the public. "Look at this preparation," says Professor Maclean, in the remarkable lecture delivered by him at Netley. "Mark this remarkable white spot on the external surface of this heart. It is as large, you see, as a five shilling COAL-CUTTING MACHINES. piece. What is it? Nothing, apparently, but a of coal-cutting by machinery, the Associa- corns with which we are afflicted by unskiut, substance analogous to a corn-as much the result WITH a view to encourage the development of friction and undue pressure, as are the torturing and the question is not materially altered, for tion of the colliery proprietors of South Lan- bootmakers. We call it here "the soldier's spot," every seaman knows that in a heavy sea 2ft.cashire and Cheshire have decided to offer three so common is it on the hearts of soldiers at our make no essential difference in the scend of a very handsome prizes to the inventors of the best post mortem examinations." This "spot" says the large ship when driving against or anchored machines for the purpose. during a storm. According to par- British Medical Journal, is due to the heavy, cumOff Balaklava the "Britannia" ticulars given in the Mining Journal the machines bersome, ill-arranged, and torturing accoutrehad a narrow escape from going down at her submitted for competition are to be supplied not ments of the soldier. auchors, owing to water coming in through the later than November 1, and they will then be prac- disease produced by the clumsy construction of The amount of heart The decks had to be scuttled to tically tested in the collieries before a committee the accoutrements, as shown by the statistics allow it to flow to the pumps. Had our ironclads been compelled to ride out heavy gales The committee will by this means ascertain which men discharged in 1862 were lost to the service appointed by the association for that purpose.given, is most startling; 14.76 per cent. of the in exposed anchorages this grave defect would machines are most suitable to the requirements from this cause. long since have been brought under the notice of the trade, and prizes of £500, £200, and £100 the extreme exponent of the suffering caused. It Heart disease, moreover, is only of the Admiralty, but the security of the great respectively will be awarded to the three best. means also, constant and extensive inefficiency, naval ports prevents it from being brought to That the existence of a practically useful machine distress, and slowness in the field. The men la. light. When ships were compelled to weigh will place the coal-owners in such a position that bour on and suffer much, rather than fall out and under sail it was a great advantage to have a clear upper deck, in order to work the braces they will be less at the mercy of their workmen is incur the imputation of being "soft.". Some with facility. Now the case is reversed; a clear beyond question; but it does not by any means have worked on through a field-day, and died gundeck is the great desideratum. It is just follow that the introduction of machinery will rather than give in. The British pack is, without possible that a ship may have to weigh and fight makes it so. The value of such a certificate as pack and accoutrements are infinitely superior to be injurious to the workmen, unless he himself exception, the worst in Europe. The Prussian at the same time, as it might not be desirable on an enemy's coast to slip the anchor. If iron. the winning of even the lowest of the three prizes ours; and by the time that ours is improved, the clads are to be manoeuvred under canvas no would be, as to the merit of a machine, beyond Prussians will likely be still ahead of us, for they British admiral would select narrow waters for estimation, the association being composed ex- are now doing their utmost to improve what is the purpose. I, therefore, would work the clusively of gentlemen whose reputation for in- already a long way ahead of anything which we cables on the upper deck, feeling assured that tegrity and honour is universal, and whose can show. We hope that the Pack Committee such a plan must add to the efficiency and safety practical knowledge is acquired from their habit. which is now sitting, will soon complete their inof all ships. ual occupation being the actual management of vestigation, and that the authorities will lose no the collieries in which they are interested. A time in relieving the army from the present illbetter opportunity for obtaining an indisputable contrived and mischievous knapsack and all its beproof of the practical value of an invention has longings. seldom, if ever, been offered to inventors.

Mechanical improvements and appliances make but slow progress in the naval service. There appears to be a dread of making things work too easily, lest the activity of our seamen should be impaired thereby. The result is that our troopships have not steam winches, or our fighting ships steam pumps, save those in the engineroom. The former might combine both with ad• Vantage. In all future naval battles we may

Academy an ingenious electric anemometer which
General Morin has just submitted to the French
shows with great accuracy the state of ventilation
in hospital wards, theatres, &c.

The combustion of gas in a gas stove is seldom as perfect as from the ordinary gas-ligh, burner. As to the amount of heat, therefore, the latter has a slight advantage. The same remark is also applicable to the combustion of petroleum oil.

MACHINERY FOR CUTTING FILES.

FIC.I

MACHINERY FOR CUTTING FILES.

THE
HE annexed engraving shows an invention
designed for the purpose of cutting files by
mechanical means, and for turning up or raising
the teeth thereof in imitation of the teeth of files
which are cut by hand. It has been patented
by Mr. John Henshall, of Ardwick, Lancaster,
who proposes to use a light cntter holder sliding
in grooves or channels, which is lifted by means
of a cam and depressed by means of two spiral
springs. The cutter holder is mounted and slides
in two grooves in which it has a slight clearance
or play, and from a rod projecting from the top
of the holder a crosshead extends laterally,
upon the ends of which the two springs press;
the lifting cam is secured on a driving shaft and
lifts the cutter secured in the holder by acting on
a bowl on the holder, and when the cam releases
the cutter holder the springs force it down on to
the file blank secured on a movable bed beneath,
and from the peculiar combination of the light
holder and the double springs the cutter vibrates
or shakes slightly in the siding guides after it
has entered the blank, and thus turns up, raises,
or forms a tooth on the top edge of the indenta.
tion which it has cut. The progressive motion
of the file blank is effected by means of a face
cam on the driving shaft acting upon a lever
in connection with a paul, which turns a ratchet
wheel and so moves the bed in which the file
blank is secured.

FIC.2.

enters the slot r so as to press upon and lift the
tool holder band movable crosshead g, the
until the tool holder has reached its highest
action of which compresses the spiral springs,
point, at which time the peculiar formation of
the cam e gives an instantaneous release to the
tool holder, the tool of which is thus caused by
the expansion of the springs f to descend and
strike the file blank, and the vibratory nature of
the blow after the tool has entered the blank
turns up, raises, or forms a tooth on the top edge
of the indentation which it has cut. The pro-
gressive motion given to the file blank and its
supporting bed through the arrangement of
apparatus herein before described is capable of
being regulated so as to give a greater or less
movement to the table in order that the file under
the action of the cutting tool may receive a fine
or coarse pitch as required.

A

THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL
ENGINEERS.

Ta meeting of the above Institute held

Charing Cross Railway.

upon the piers, except that they had no roller frames, but were bedded upon brickwork in cement set upon the solid rock. The distance from the land saddles to the anchorage was 60ft., with an average inclination of 45 deg.; and in this distance the three chains gradually diverged, until they were 5ft. apart, where they were inserted through castings forming separate anchorage plates for each chain. The three chains were in such a relative position to each other as to produce an equal horizontal distance of nearly 8ft. from the centres of the suspension rods throughout the bridge. The suspension rods transmitted their strain to the chains only at the joints; so that the links of the chain had no other strain upon them than that due to the direct tensile strain in the direction of their length. The duty of maintaining an equal action upon all three chains in supporting the roadway was performed by the strength and stiffness of the longitudinal girders. All the links were tested to a strain of 10 tons per square inch.

The arrangements for the erection of the chains comprised a temporary suspended staging, constructed of eight iron wire ropes, each capable of bearing 35 tons. Six of these ropes served to support a timber platform, and two were at a height of 3ft. 6in. above, to form a hand railing on each side. The upper ropes were attached to those below, so as to act in conjunction with them in sustaining any weight upon the staging. Another rope was fixed above, for the purpose of carrying two light travelling frames, suspended on wheels, which were moved as required by light ropes, and by means of which links were taken from the piers to the men engaged in erecting the chains. The work was commenced at the anchorage plates at each end simultaneously, the lower chain being put in first. At the anchorage plates the whole then eleven, ten, nine, and so on until the chain of the links, twelve in number, were inserted; was diminished to one link; after which it was continued at one link and two links alternately from the piers, until it met in the middle of the centre opening. The wire rope staging was designed to carry the weight of the centre portions of the chain, formed of one link and two links alternately, with the men and tools required to erect it. The calculated breaking weight of the staging was 224 tons, evenly distributed, and the weight it had to carry was 40 tons. The suspended platform was kept below the intended level of the chains, and the links were supported upon it by packing pieces which could be raised or lowered. When the links of the chain were united in the middle, the packing pieces were lowered until the chain took its own bearing, and thus relieved the staging from the action of its weight. At this stage of the proceedings, the chain was adjusted for length, by means of keys arranged for that purpose in the first links from the pier saddles.. The next operation was that

on

which was accomplished, by an ingenious and simple apparatus, with such rapidity that on some days more than one hundred links were added. The chains on the Bristol or eastern

dent, in the chair, the paper read was "Description of the Clifton Suspension Bridge," by Mr. W. H. Barlow, M. Inst. C.E., F.R.S. In this communication reference was first made to the history and origin of the undertaking; and it side having been completed, the staging was Fig. 1 in the engraving represents a side tee- was stated that the abutments and the piers, removed to the other side, and the remaining vation of the file-cutting apparatus, and fig. 2 a ready to receive the saddles for supporting the three chains were put up in a similar manner. front elevation of the same. a a is the foundation chains, were completed, from the designs of the When the chains were erected, and the suspenbed or plate, to which are secured the uprights late Mr. Brunel, in the year 1843, when the works sion links were fixed, the suspension rods and bb; these uprights are provided with the parallel were suspended from insufficiency of funds. In cross girders were attached, by means of a frames cc,between which the sliding tool holder 1860 a new company was formed, and arrange. movable crane, upon a long base frame, weighd is caused to rise and fall, the former being ments were entered into for the purchase of the ing upwards of 5 tons, and travelling upon a effected by means of the cam e on the driving land and piers at Clifton, and of the chains from temporary railway. This crane was so contrived shaft h, and the latter by the spiral springs ff, the Hungerford Suspension Bridge, then about and balanced that it could carry a cross girder, through the medium of the crosshead g. The to be replaced by a girder bridge, to carry the with an equivalent length of the longitudinal gir file under operation is adjusted so as to rest firmly ders, a considerable distance in advance of the on the feed or sliding bedi by means of the yielding In the Clifton Bridge as executed, there were wheels upon which it travelled. Thus, when spring presser k, the amount of pressure exerted three chains on each side, supporting longitu- placed upon the abutment, it held the first cross for retaining or holding the file being governed dinal stiffening girders of wrought iron, with open-girder in its intended position, until the men by the handle screw and blocks 1. A regular work cross girders, the hand railing of the bridge attached the first pair of suspension rods to it and intermittent feed is given to the sliding bed being made also to form longitudinal stiffening and to the chains. Planking was then laid from i, upon which the file is secured by the ratchet girders, with open-work sides. The principal the abutment to the cross girder, and the railway wheel m and paul n, actuated by the eccentric dimensions were-span, 702 ft.3in.; distance from was lengthened. The travelling crane next took o through the medium of the bell crank lever p centre to centre of chains, 20ft.; width of bridge, up the second cross girder, and advanced with and adjustable connecting rod q, the action of including roadway and footways, 31ft.; versed sine that to its position, and held it in like manner the machine being as follows:-The cutter holder of curve of chains 70ft.; and height of roadway until it was attached to the chain. The planking d, mounted and sliding in the grooves or parallel above high water, 248ft. The chains were car and roadway were again lengthened, and the levers c, is provided with the opening or slot rried upon the piers by wrought-iron saddles, third cross girder fixed, and so on from both ends and a projecting rod s, upon which is keyed or of the bridge, until the roadway meti n the midotherwise secured the movable crosshead g, a dle. The remaining operations of connecting the pressure being exerted upon the same by the longitudinal girders, adjusting the several parts spiral springs f, the upper portion of which being of the work, and laying the roadway, were then caused to bed against the fixed crosshead. The proceeded with. came on the driving shaft h when revolving

placed upon roller frames of cast iron, the rollers
being made of cast steel. The beds of the roller
frames were at an inclination of 1 in 20, rising
towards the river. At a distance of 196ft. from
the centres of the piers, land saddles were placed,
which were similar in construction to the saddles

The sectional area of the chains at the pier

was 481 square inches, and in the centre of the from the designs of Mr. P. W. Barlow (M. Inst. late Board of Admiralty at Portsmouth in fine span 440 square inches. The weight of the C. E.) was an example. The subject of stiffen-weather, but it was not sufficiently tried in rough chains between the piers was 554 tons, and that ing suspension bridges with the least quantity of weather, and the gallant inventor was much disof the suspension rods, longitudinal and trans- material was one well deserving attention. In satisfied. Commander Sayer had sent his plans verse girders, cross-bracing, hand-railing, road- a detached girder the upper and lower booms and models to the new Board of Admiralty, but way, &c., about 440 tons. The strain at the must each be capable of bearing the strains they were returned to him with a note from Sir centre due to the chains was 680 tons, that due produced by the weight of the bridge and its J. Hay, saying that, however ingenious the invento the weight of the platform, &c., was 597 tons, load, and the diagonals must be strong enough tion might be, the Admiralty were not prepared and that produced by a maximum moving load to transmit the whole of those strains. Whereas, to adopt it for the navy. In explanation, Sir J. of 70lb. per square foot was 817 tons, or to- in a stiffened suspension bridge, the chain was Pakington said that not long since Captain Sayer gether 2,094 tons, which was equal to 4'76 tons the only member required to bear the strains submitted his invention to the present Board of per square inch of the sectional area of the produced by the weight of the bridge and its Admiralty, which took the course always followed chains at the centre of the span. The suspension load; while the diagonal bracing, or stiffening, when such inventions were brought before them, rods were each rather more than 2in. in section. need be no more than was sufficient to prevent namely, referred them to the departments with The greatest weight that could come upon a pair disturbance from the moving load. In relation which such matters were connected. The Board of rods, including their maximum load, was to this subject the author stated, he had found by was desirous of giving a fair trial to his invention, about 13 tons, which would produce a strain of experiments on solid bars, made in 1858, as well and they directed that it should be considered by 4 tons per square inch. The anchorage plates as from a theoretical investigation of the case as the Controller of the Navy. It appeared, howand the bearing plates of the saddles were so applied to lattice girders, that, in a continuous ever, that Captain Sayers had had some personal arranged that the maximum pressure upon the girder, if, instead of using an equal depth difference with the Controller of the Navy, and brickwork could not in any case exceed 10 tons throughout, a greater depth and a greater sec- would not consent to his examining into his inper square foot. In order to provide for the tional area were given over the piers, an in-vention. They were perfectly ready to give a fair effects of expansion and contraction, and to crease of strength was obtained in a much higher trial to the invention; but if Captain Sayer perallow for the movement occasioned by wind and ratio than that of the increased weight of metal sisted in his unfortunate objection to have any by the passage of heavy loads across the bridge, employed. Another point deserving of con- connexion with the officer who was the proper the two extremities of the roadway were furnish-sideration was the best form of link and fasten- person to deal with the matter, it was to be feared ed with jointed ends or flaps 8ft. long, which ing for the chains of a suspension bridge, to that the subject must remain in abeyance for gave perfect freedom of motion, both ver- which Sir Charles Fox (M. Inst. C. E.) had some time. tically and in the direction of the length of the directed attention. But where the object was to At the same sitting of the House, Mr. Miller bridge. construct bridges of very large span, another, asked the President of the Board of Trade and perhaps the most important consideration, whether it was the fact, that the standards of was the employment of a stronger material. In weights and measures had been in use for forty years this respect the introduction of steel was without re-adjustment; and whether such re adcalculated to have a marked influence. Many justment was intended, and when; and what of the properties of steel were at present unnotice would be given to the public thereof. known; but it had been determined, by experi Mr. Cave said that the standards of weight and ments, that its tensile strength was nearly dou-length had been in use since 1825, and those of ble that of wrought iron, and that it could be capacity since 1834, without re-adjustment. made quite as malleable. Its powers of resist fact, there was no provision at all for verifying or ance to compression did not show the same comparing these standards until the passing of the proportion of strength; but in the application of Standards' Bill of last session, which provided that steel to the chains of a suspension bridge it was the Board of Trade should, as soon as convenient the tensile strength which operated. after the passing of the bill, and thenceforward at least once in five years, take steps for comparing and adjusting the standards. It was considered better that this re-adjustment should take place under high scientific superintendence; and it was proposed, therefore, to reconstitute the Standards Commission, the members of which had given notice of their willingness to serve. The preliminary steps had already been taken, and the comparison of the standards was now going on in the Standards Department. The comparison of the weights has been completed, and it is satisfactory to learn that the variations are so small as scarcely to be perceived, except by very accurate balances. As soon as the.re-adjustment is complete, full notice of the fact will be given.

The works were commenced at Clifton, in November, 1862, by Messrs. Cochrane, the contractors, under the superintendence of their 'resident manager, Mr. Airey, and the bridge was opened for public traffic on December 8, 1864. The total cost of the ironwork, including the purchase of the chains of the Hungerford Bridge and their carriage to Clifton, was £34,975. Previous to opening the bridge, it was tested by a dead weight of 500 tons of stone, distributed over the surface, when a total deflection was produced of 7in. in the centre. On the removal of the test load, the centre of the bridge rose to its former position within one-sixteenth of an inch, but the middle of the southern half of the bridge did not rise again to its former height by one inch, while the northern side rose above its original position. This was probably due to the change in the direction and force of the wind be. fore and after the testing.

The author stated that the most severe strain which the bridge had to resist was that result. ing from heavy gales of wind, especially those from the north-west or south-east, being nearly in the direction of the deep gorge of the River Avon at the place where the bridge was constracted. On these occasions three effects were observed. First, there was a small horizontal deflection, which was just sufficient to be perceptible to the eye when placed in range with the suspension rods. Secondly, there was an undulation from end to end of the bridge, the maximum rise and fall being, in Mr. Airey's opinion, as much as 6in. above and 6in. below the mean level of the roadway. Thirdly, the land chains between the piers and the land sad. dles, which carried no suspension rods, were liable to be deflected laterally, notwithstanding their weight, the longitudinal strain upon them, and the comparatively small surface exposed to the wind.

The author remarked that, considering the facility with which suspension bridges could be constructed, and the comparatively inexpensive nature of the scaffolding, or temporary staging, required for erecting them, there appeared to be no reason why spans of much greater magnitude should not be accomplished. The spans already crossed by bridges on this principle far exceeded | those of any form of girder. The largest girder ever built was that of the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Straits, which was 460ft. between the bearings. The largest suspension bridge was that at Fribourg, which was stated to be 880ft.; while the Niagara Suspension Bridge was 820ft. from centre to centre of the towers, and it had been in daily use for nearly twelve years for the passage of railway trains. Suspension bridges had not hitherto been adopted in this country for railway purposes, under the impression that the principle of construction necessarily involved such an amount of flexibility as to render them unfit for the passage of trains; but it must be considered that the larger the bridge, and the greater the ratio of the weight of the bridge to the weight of the moving load, the less was the disturbance of form caused by a passing load. Moreover, it was quite practicable to stiffen a suspension bridge so as to render it nearly as rigid as a girder, of which the Lambeth Bridge,

Parliamentary Notes,

THE Fitzroy storm signals received some atten-
tion in the House of Commons this day week,
when Colonel Sykes asked the President of the
Board of Trade whether they were to be con-
tinued; and, if so, in what manner, and by whom;
if to be discontinued, whether it would not be
prudent previously to invite the chambers of
commerce of the kingdom to express their opinion
on the subject; and, whether the valuable and in-
structive meteorological report which had ap.
peared daily in the newspapers would be con-
tinued; and whether observations from the Paris,
Brussels, and St. Petersburgh Observatories
could not be added to it. In reply, Sir S. North-
cote said, after the death of the late Admiral
Fitzroy, an inquiry took place into the whole
system of the Meteorological Department, and a
committee was appointed. The report of that
committee, stated that the observations which it
had originally been intended to make, and which
should be the foundation of a scientific system of
meteorology, had been of late years to a great
extent discontinued, and more attention had been
given to storm prophecies and signals. They re-
commended that for the future more attention
should be paid to the collection of information on
the former subject, and for this purpose the
matter would be placed in the hands of the
Scientific Committee of the Royal Society. That
committee said they were not prepared to con-
tinue the storm signals; and, therefore, the Board
of Trade could not undertake that part of the
duty, but telegrams would be sent to the different
stations and ports of the kingdom respecting ob-
servations which had been made. As to the addi-
tion of reports from the observatories of Paris,
St. Petersburgh, and Brussels, it was not at pre-
sent thought desirable that it should be done.
Having recently commented upon this matter at
some length, we refer our readers to page 77 of
our issue for February 8 for our views, merely ob-
serving that the suspension of storm signals so
valuable to mariners, is little less than a crime.

On Monday last Mr. Knatchbull-Hugessen put
a question to the First Lord of the Admiralty re-
specting the invention by Commander Sayer of a
folding lifeboat which had been brought under
the notice of that department, and which took up
a very small space, and could be easily stowed
away until wanted. It had been tried by the

In

Commissioner of Works whether, having in view the recent lamentable loss of life in the Regent's Park, it was intended to lessen the depth in the ornamental waters of the public parks; and, if so, to what depth it was proposed to reduce them. Lord J. Manners said it was intended to make the depth of the ornamental water in Regent's Park 4ft., but he was not in a position to say what would be done in the case of the other parks.

On Tuesday, Mr. H. B. Sheridan asked the First

The inspection of colleries was shortly afterwards discussed by Mr. Edwards, who asked the Secretary of State for the Home Department whether he proposed to introduce any measure during the present session to secure the more efficient inspection of colleries and their workings, with the view of preventing the recurrence of such lamentable sacrifice of life as attended the late accidents at Barnsley and elsewhere. From the reply, we gather that Mr. Walpole has directed all the inspectors of collieries to make what sug gestions they think of service in reference to this subject, those reports will be referred to a select committee of the House to consider. Until that committee has made its report nothing will be done.

The question of guards and passengers' communication on railways was alluded to on Wednesday by Mr. H. B. Sheridan, who obtained leave to introduce a bill to compel railway companies to provide an efficient means of communication in railway trains. This is what we always expected it would come to. In fact, we predicted the cir cumstance a year ago in an article upon the subject, when we observed that the mental, if not moral, obliquity, of certain railway directors, would at last compel the legislature to step in and ensure public safety in travelling. So now those companies who would not adopt a system of communication in their trains, may look out, Mr. Sheridan's bill has been read a first time.