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were of course submitted to the board. These were all carefully examined, but the board found itself unable to recommend any one of them for adoption for future construction by the Government. While fully impressed with the great mechanical ingenuity displayed in many of the plans, the report states that no one offers advantages for service superior to the altered musket recommended; and therefore the board considered that, in view of the large number of excellent muzzle-loading mus. kets now in store, and the slight changes of machinery necessary to make new arms on that plan should more arms be deemed necessary, there can be no justification for an entire change of model and the great expense consequent thereon until some further improvement shall be devised producing more decided advantages than any of the arms yet presented.

for the United States' army, inasmuch as until the workmen. For different kinds of machinery
the Government find a better, the Spencer is it can be thinned in this way to the proper
recommended in case more arms are required consistency. For railway carriages the thick
than are at present on hand. The new ex- emulsion would be about the proper consist-
tractor referred to does away with all the ency. For this lubricant it is reasonable to
jambing about which there was some discus-expect advantages that cannot be derived from
sion at the Wimbledon meeting last year, and ordinary grease or oil, namely, that of prevent-
the "stop" for the magazine is simple and ing heating in a great measure. It being some-
very effective. We hope in the course of a what of a volatile nature, any tendency to
short time to be able to place before our heating would be counteracted by the volatili-
readers particulars of these improvements, sation of the lubricant, and this in a lubricant
which, it seems to us, render this weapon all is an inestimable property. As a lubricant,
that can be desired. We understand that our perhaps the most of the heavy petroleum may
Government have purchased 3,000 Spencer be used; still that is not the most profitable
repeating arms, 1,000 rifles, and 2,000 car- use to which to apply it. Its proper use is as a
bines for the British troops in Canada. The light and heat giving material. We think we
Canadian Government have also purchased could suggest a way of using it, at least as
a large number for their own troops. By the fuel. Let it be first ascertained the amount
time therefore the forthcoming trials of breech- of hydrogen required to unite with it to turn
loaders are concluded, we may look for a re- the whole into carburetted hydrogen gas, that
port from the commanding officer in Canada will thoroughly consume without leaving any
of the result of the issue of "Spencers" to the solid residue. Then heat the oil in contact
troops over there. The Spencer rifle will be with hydrogen, and the two would unite and
well represented at the approaching competi-pass off through the jets in the furnace as a
tion, and, as it has come victorious out of the highly calorific gas. The apparatus could be
trials in the States, we may predict for it so arranged that a store of gas could be re-
highly satisfactory results over here.
tained to commence with, and when in action
it would not only generate its own hydrogen
but distil over the petroleum in contact with
the hydrogen to supply the heat—that is, it
a obtained in this manner.
would be a regenerative gas furnace. The hy-

HEAVY PETROLEUM OIL.
In the first product that come oil,
N the distillation of crude petroleum oil,

A

We now come to the question of magazine or repeating arms, of which the Spencer rifle will be, to our readers, a familiar type, an illustrated description of this arm having appeared in the MECHANICS' MAGAZINE for June 29, 1866. In this respect the board is not decided in the opinion whether it would be best to have only magazine carbines in the cavalry service. From past experience the board is unwilling to dispense entirely with magazine arms, and as these arms can be used ordinarily as single-loaders (retaining a number of charges in the magazine for extraordinary volatile and inflammable spirit, which is current of steam being passed through scraps occasions, free from danger of ignition in the usually rejected as being too dangerous to of old iron kept at a red heat, would oxidise the ordinary use of the gun), the only objections store; the next product is paraffin oil, and it iron and set free the hydrogen of the vapour to their exclusive use are the additional ex-is to the admixture of this oil with the light to be used as above stated. To produce 1lb. pense of this arm over the simple single-loader, inflammable spirit that most of the explosions weight of hydrogen, 281b. of scraps of old iron and the greater inconvenience of the use of a of paraffin oil are to be attributed, and this would have to be oxidised. Now it takes about lever-gun compared with some patterns of the seems to arise from the manufacturers wishing 100 cubic feet of hydrogen to weigh a pound, hinge-breech gun which have been presented to obtain the greatest yield possible of the and that is a considerable volume, and we to the board. In consideration of the above saleable oil, or in the distiller inadvertently should think that 281b. of old iron would not reasons, and also of the manifest advantages raising the heat before all the volatile spirit cost more than a shilling. Further, the pure of having single-loading carbines (if needed) has passed over. When this is carefully at- carburetted hydrogen might be used for lightand muskets made upon the same pattern, tended to there is but little danger of any ex-ing purposes, and would be infinitely superior except in length of barrel, the board recom- plosion with paraffin oil. The residuum is to anything we know of in the shape of coal mends that until a suitable plan for new composed of scales of paraffin and what is gas. It would be equal in every respect to muskets can be obtained, offering decided called heavy oil. The paraffin being extracted rosin gas, and we remember well the brilliant advantages over the proposed plan now there remains the heavy oil. As yet but little white light that gas used to give-no soot and recommended for altered muskets, no single-use has been found for this heavy oil, for it no sulphurous acid fumes. Of course, for the loading carbine should be constructed for the cannot be burnt in lamps on account of the general manufacture of gas it could not be used army. The experience of the late war, as imperfect combustion of the excess of carbon it-the supply is too limited; but wherever it well as all the experiments made by the board, contains. From the crude oil 60 per cent. of might be used as a fuel, there it might be used have gone to prove that the Spencer magazine paraffin oil is obtained, 4 per cent. of paraffin, also for lighting. carbine is the best service gun of this kind yet and 16 per cent. of heavy oil, and there is 20 offered. The experiments detected a defect per cent. of waste. At present this 16 per in the arrangement for the extractor, which cent. of heavy oil cannot be considered as anyhas been corrected by the manufacturers, thing but waste, as there is as yet no sale for upon the suggestion of the board, producing, it. But great efforts are being made to utilise in the opinion of the manufacturers themselves, this heavy oil. We believe that Mr. Lavender, a decided improvement in the arm, and one at the Petroleum Works, Belvedere, is exert that will lessen much the liability to become ing his ingenuity to turn it to account; he is disabled in the service. It is believed, how-making it into what he calls grease, to be used ever, from models and from experiments of as a lubricant. Of course that is only a name, the board, that the magazine arm is capable as this heavy petroleum cannot be made into of further improvement; and the board therefore recommend some delay in adopting definitely a pattern "for future construction of carbines for cavalry service." Should new carbines be previously needed, it is recommended that the Spencer carbine, with the modified extractor, be used. The conclusions of the board with respect to facility of handling, lightness, and accuracy of fire in military rifles are, that it will be of advantage to reduce the length of barrel, when practicable, to not less then 33in., retaining the present length of bayonet; and also that with the adoption of the metallic cartridge, the present cartridge-box should be modified. Such, then, is the substance of a report giving the results arrived at by a board of practical examiners, and from which we learn the present position of the question in America. It will be seen by the foregoing that the Spencer rifle is the only repeater therein named, and it is pronounced to be the best submitted. The only reason assigned why they should not be used exclusively for cavalry is said to be the cost, and some inconvenience assumed to attach to any lever motion. We think, however, that the Spencer rifle may now be fairly said to be the service carbine

veritable grease. We suspect it is simply a
kind of saponified emulsion of petroleum,
made by a strong solution of alkali, and, if the
price that it is to be sold at can be taken as a
guide, that alkali is caustic soda. We do not
say that this is that gentleman's process, but
merely say that in this way it may be done,
by first dissolving a little gum resin in the
petroleum; it would then unite with caustic
alkalies and caustic lime and form the emul-
sion above referred to. Such an emulsion at
any rate would make an excellent lubricant,
much superior to any crude grease, as all
grease becomes rancid and then contains what
are called the fatty acids, which attack metals,
and are apt to do much damage to machinery;
whereas this lubricant being alkaline will not
oxidise, and, in case any matters should get
into the petroleum that will acidify, the alkali
will neutralise that acidity.

A strong solution of caustic soda itself is an
excellent lubricant, and is being extensively
used instead of soft soap and water for planing,
boring, and turning metals. Doubtless this lu-
bricant, if so made, will take the place of the
caustic soda when mixed with a little of the
heavy petroleum, and it will be quite as cheap
and not so hurtful to the hands and clothes of

Then the question arises as to price. Could it be used with economy in lieu of coal? Well the better kinds of petroleum are being attempted to be used, and it is said they can be used with economy, and if they can this certainly can, for it is a byeproduct remaining after the manufacture of other valuable products. The great thing aimed at hitherto has been a lamp to burn this heavy oil, but no success has hitherto attended the efforts of the ingenious; but, doubtless, there will be, and it would be a great triumph if we were to be enabled to make our own gas on our tables as we required it. We do not despair of even that. Would not that humble the gas monopolists? We have been carking for some time about the exhaustion of our coalfields, and here is some little hope for us in the produce of the oil wells and the distillation of shales, and, no doubt, long before that dreaded exhaustion arrives many other sources of light and heat will be discovered. We are aware that attempts have been made to burn heavy petroleum in furnaces, and with somewhat of success. This has been obtained by a sufficient blast to thoroughly burn up the carbon, by bringing an excess of atmospheric air in contact with it while in combustion. Mr. W. Young has attempted to utilise some of the first volatile spirit that first passes over in distilling bituminous coal and shale. He caused this volatile vapour to pass back again into the still, towards the end of the distillation of the coal or shale, that it might take up some of the carbon and come over in the form of easily condensible and non-volatile oil. He took out a patent for this process in connection with a Mr. Brash; but we suppose not having found the thing to

succeed to their expectations they abandoned it. Theory and practice do not always agree, but do not let the half-informed cry out against theory on that account, as is their wont. Sound theory must precede and guide all successful practice.

THE

fondly imagined their fortune to be made in every committee, has produced a volume which, sense because they had succeeded in inventing or inter est, amount and variety of informa a machine which was able to perform [tion, and wide practical utility, stands unriwhat had hitherto been a matter of hand valled by any other work of its class we have labour. ever seen. But notwithstanding the elaborate and A patent has been recently taken out in often exhaustive manner in which the various France and elsewhere for the machine repre- subjects are treated, Mr. Timmins tells us at the sented in the accompanying cut, and the outset that it was impossible to do justice to all patentee, M. Ad. Déjardin, claims for it many the trades, or even to mention all the names CENTRIFUGAL CRUSHING MILL. advantages over others of a similar nature. and branches which extend over Birmingham HE more universal the applicability of any It occupies very little space, and is worked alone. They are so numerous, so various, and particular machine, the more generally at a very small cost; it requires but a smail are conducted by so many different persons, useful it will be; but while giving all due motive force, works with great rapidity, and that not even the 700 and odd pages before credit to a machine so constituted, it is ques- can be adjusted to admit of any degree of fine- us suffice to give an account of them all in tionable whether it ever fulfils one of its mul-ness or coarseness being given to the substance detail as perfectly as was designed. But with tifarious duties in so perfect a manner as a under its action, and requires no sifting such an infinite variety of information before machine constructed to perform that one duty or other manipulation. This crusher will us, it is not easy to say off-hand what are its alone. It is, in fact, an exemplification in an serve for coals, stones, cements, and, in fact, for shortcomings, or even that it has any; those analogous manner of the proverb, "Jack of every substance capable of being pulverised. best can point these out who may conceive all trades, and master of none." In a young The mill is composed of a cast-iron frame B themselves or their branch of trade inadecolony, where the development of industry (see fig.) resting upon any convenient founda-quately represented, if any may, and to these and the various branches of manufacturing tion; in its upper part, cast in one piece with we leave the question raised by Mr. Timmins, and mechanical art are not sufficiently ad- it, is a rib b, which receives the socket C, For our own part, we think the committee vanced to permit of the full benefit arising through which passes the rod or shaft F. This have done well, and their labours must be from the principle of "division of labour," rod, or, as it may be termed, main shaft of the satisfactory in the highest degree. such men and such machines are exceedingly mill, rests upon the pivot f in the lower socket useful. In all countries, and at all times, a C, and is attached at its upper end F to the machine of any description which can make disc P. The part F is sufficiently broad to itself generally useful in its own particular take the ring p, which forms an extension of line is eagerly welcomed, especially by those the disc P. Bolted on to the frame B is the whose means or business would not allow of crusher P, which carries the ring p' in a their having a multiplicity of machines to manner similar to that of the disc P. These rings are attached to the discs by bolts, and can be renewed as often as required. The central disc P is also fixed by bolts to the main shaft of the mill, and by adjusting them the distance between the crushers can be regulated according to the degree of pulverisation required. Above the crushing disc F is fixed the scoop or collector, which gathers together the pulverised particles and conducts them to the discharging spout N. A hopper T is placed on the top of the apparatus to receive the substance to be ground, and may be fed either by hand or machine as may be convenient. The mill is set in motion by means of the wheels G and G', the latter of which is keyed on to a shaft carrying the usual fixed and loose pulleys, which can be put into connection with any motive power by ordinary driving belts.

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B

THE INDUSTRIES OF BIRMINGHAM.
IRMINGHAM, where Priestley analysed
the air and where Watt obtained the
mastery over steam, has thrice been the appro-
priate meeting-place of the members of the
British Association during the thirty-six years
perform each separate process or part of a pro- over which the history of that body extends.
cess in detail. For the purpose of crushing Appropriate, indeed, considering the objects of
various substances, from gold quartz to animal the Association, and considering also that
bone, numerous machines are in use, but, as within a radius of thirty miles of Birmingham
a rule, they are not adapted for crushing any nearly the whole of the hardware wants of
other but the special substance for which they the known world are practically supplied. The
are constructed, or, at the best, do not act to third meeting of the Association held in Bir-
equal advantage upon any substance sub-mingham was that of 1865, and one of its
mitted to their power. Although, perhaps, beneficial results was the formation of a com-
capable of reducing to powder a variety of
substances, yet the process with respect to
some might be so expensive as to preclude the
use of the machine for that purpose in an eco-
nomical point of view. Horizontal millstones,
which have been applied in one shape or
another since time immemorial to the grinding
of corn, cannot be applied with the same ad-
vantage to that of other substances. The
more modern cylindrical machines not only
require a considerable motive power, but their
results are not always in proportion to the
power expended. In designing any machine
there are two prominent points to be kept in
view; one is, that the machine should be per-
fect in its working parts and arrangements,
and the other that its working should be able
to be carried on economically. It is from the
neglect of this latter consideration that so
many patents have proved simply a source of
expense to those who obtained them, and a
bitter mortification ever afterwards. Men of
great and undoubted mechanical genius have

mittee of local industries, whose object was
the compilation of a series of reports on the
numerous and varied products of the midland
hardware district. This district, as already
indicated, occupies a vast area, and among the
numerous towns it includes, Birmingham stands
chief, being the most important, and consti-
tuting the practical centre of the system. Over
so vast an area trades innumerable and infi-
nitely various are carried on, and to the work
of investigating and reporting upon these
trades the committee with their sub-com-
mittees addressed themselves. When we con-
sider the extent and variety of the trades and
manufactures of the district, their many divi-
sions and sub-divisions, we may well wonder
at the gigantic character of the task the gentle-
men associated together for the purpose pro-
posed to themselves. But Mr. Samuel Tim-
mins, the indefatigable chairman of the com-
mittee, set heartily to work, and with the
assistance of the two secretaries, and the
co-operation of the other members of the

The extent and variety of the work may be indicated in an article like the present, but it cannot be fully realised without inspection and careful perusal. For extent and variety, the local trades of Birmingham and its surrounding districts stand unrivalled. There are the coal and iron trades of Staffordshire; the chemical products, glass, alkalies, and soap of Smethwick; there is Birmingham with its long and far-famed metal works, from the best and costliest jewellery down to mere "Brummagem" ware; its steam engines and machinery, and its tea trays and iron pots; all of these being produced in a variety of classes, from the very cheapest to the most costly. These and hundreds of other productions formed the material upon which the committee laboured to obtain accurate reports, and their reports make up the sum of the work Mr. Timmins has so ably edited. But leaving generalities, we will proceed to particularise the leading features of the work before us as far as we can, although we hardly hope within the space at our disposal to do justice to so large and important a mass of industrial facts as is here presented to view. The South Staffordshire coalfield is first noticed, and its geological structure well discussed by Mr. J. Beete Jukes, a gentleman whose name is sufficient to indicate the value of the report. Although the greater portion of this coalfield lies within the county from which it derives its name, there are yet portions of it situated in two other countiesWorcestershire and Shropshire. In these last two counties are parts of its southern portion, whilst its northern apex is at Brereton, near Rugeley. Its length from north to south is about twenty-three miles, and its mean width from east to west about six miles, thus giving a mean area of some 130 square miles. The general form of the surface of this field is indicated by Mr. Jukes, after which he enters upon the details of the underground structure, giving many important particulars relating to the subject of the coal formation. We next come to the method of working this coalfield, which is discussed by Mr. Henry Johnson, whose remarks include a notice of the ventilation and some considerations as to the extent and duration of the coalfield. The ventilation is neither so extensive nor so scientific as in the north of England, or in the thin fiery seams in some other parts. But very little trouble is experienced from fire-damp, and when gas does accumulate, it is harmlessly and effectively carried off by elevating the mouth of the intake air current at the highest point at which the coals may be hanging in the chamber where the accumulation occurs. The duration of this coalfield has been estimated at forty years, although Mr. Johnson tells us that in about twenty years a very large portion

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of the earlier developed part of the coalfield will be totally and for ever exhausted. Mr. Samuel Bailey follows with an interesting paper on the economic value of various measures of coal and ironstone in the South Staffordshire coalfield. By way of indicating the vast productions of a particular locality of this coalfield the author mentions that the coal and ironstone gotten there once realised a commercial value of £20,000 per acre. That day, however, is passed, and the mines that produced this almost incredible result are now nearly exhausted. Still valuable minerals continue to be produced, and the ironstone measures, together with the seams of coal, form a mixture from which iron can be made of an unsurpassable quality. Further papers on the subject of this coalfield treat of its drainage and of the statistics of its remarkable products. We then have the limestones of the district noticed at some length, after which we come to an elaborate report on the iron trade of South Stafford hire, by Mr. John Jones. The author treats his subject from an historical and social as well as from a practical point of view, giving a large amount of useful information in a very useful form.

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NOTES ON RECENT SCIENTIFIC DIS

I

COVERIES AND THEIR PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS.

on the industrial history of Birmingham, and cesses, the machine or hand labour, the emanother on the steel pen trade of that busy ployment of women or children, the effects of town, which he terms the "penshop of the improvement on cost, the home and foreign world." The latter article is highly interesting, trade, the effects of the French treaty and the and affords a large amount of information upon American war, the other seats of manufacture, the manufacture of one of the great necessities of the numbers employed, the average earnings, modern times-steel pens. When the British and general condition of the workpeople," as Association first met in Birmingham (in 1839) relating to every principal trade in the town steel pens were almost unknown; but when and district of Birmingham. This aim has the second visit was made, in 1849, the steel been carefully kept in view, and the result pen trade had risen to a very important place has been one of the largest and most important among the manufactures of this town. Be- collections of industrial facts and figures havtween the two periods named there had been ing direct reference to the manufacturing eighteen makers of steel pens, but these had interests of a single district ever placed on been reduced to twelve in 1849; and, although record. The volume is peculiarly the prothe number is now twelve, the quantity of duction of the district it represents, or rather pens produced has enormously increased. Mr. of its centre, Birmingham. All the work of Timmins tells us that the number of men em- production of matter was done in Birmingployed by these twelve makers is 360; the ham, and by Birmingham men; it was printed number of women and girls, 2,050. The in Birmingham, and is certainly no discredit amount of horse-power employed may be esti- to the town. The whole style and get-up of mated at 330, including (say) 50 employed in the book is admirable, the design for the out-work rolling. The number of pens made cover being a centrepiece consisting of a weekly, 98,000 gross. The quantity of steel toothed wheel, a screw, a hammer, and a lever, used weekly, 9 to 10 tons. The value of grouped together, with the word "Forward" pens per gross, 1d. to 1s., and the barre! on a scroll in the foreground, whilst around pens from 7d. to 12s. per gross, some of the are medallions with bees in their centres. These important considerations of the coal larger pens being very much higher, according The design was prepared by Mr. Powell, of and ironstone measures are succeeded by to their size and finish. It will thus be seen Birmingham, and the die was cut at Messrs. reports upon the various local industries, that the number of persons employed has not Hardman's works. The book reflects the which in effect form the substance of the increased in the same ratio as the production, highest credit on Mr. Timmins, as editor, volume. And here we must content ourselves in consequence of the many improvements whilst Mr. Hardwicke's well-known good with a passing and general notice. So numerous facilitating manufacture, and rendering labour taste has materially enhanced the value of are the reports and so varied their information less important. The increase of men and the work. that we cannot refer to each separately now, boys from 300 to 360; of women and girls, although we hope at some future time to en- from 1,550 to 2,050; of horse-power, from lighten our readers further upon the industrial 228 to 330; of steel used, from 6 to 10 tons; resources of that centre of industry, Birming- of pens made, from 65,000 to 98,000 gross ham. The subject of locks and lock making weekly, will sufficiently indicate the rapid is first brought before our notice, and this is a development of the trade during the last 16 manufacture which has long occupied a promi- years. These returns of the number of pernent position among the skilled industries of sons employed, amounting to 2,400 perSouth Staffordshire. The localities especially sons, do not include the large numbers devoted to the trade are Wolverhampton, employed in making the paper boxes and other Willenhall, Wednesfield, and Walsall, with accessories of the trade; and doubtless more several adjacent hamlets. The history of the than 2,000 persons are more or less directly subject is traced from antiquity to the present connected with the steel pen trade in Birmingday, and presents a number of interesting fea- ham alone. Mr. Timmins has been unable tures. Under the head of boiler plate making to obtain from the various makers a return of we get an insight into the manufacture of steam the annual value of their products, but he boilers and gas apparatus. Besides these, sugar places the average price of steel pens at 6d. pans, clarifiers, salt and saltpetre pans, tanks and per gross. Taking this very low average we cisterns, galvanising baths, plating vats, canal may safely conclude that nearly £3,000 worth and river boats, iron roofing, and a host of of pens are made in Birmingham every week. minor matters are noticed. In recording the One point relating to the cost of pens is very progress of the gas-holder trade in Birming- remarkable-the wonderfully low rate at ham, Mr. George Pigott remarks that at the which they are now produced. Thirty years ago period of its introduction there in 1831, the pens were sold wholesale at 5s. a gross, and largest gas-holder then made was 60ft. in now they are sold as low as 1d. only per diameter, and contained about 50,000 cubic gross. When it is remembered that each feet of gas. This was, however, a great gross requires 144 pieces of steel to go through advance upon the first gas-holders used in at least twelve processes, the fact that 144 London about 1812, and which had a capacity pens can be sold for 14d. is a singular example of only 10,000 cubic feet. In 1834, telescopic of the results attainable by the division of gas-holders first came into use, and this form labour and mechanical skill. Mr. Timmins allowed the capacity to be doubled or trebled gives us an insight into this branch of trade without any increase in the diameter, an im- as carried on upon the continent. France portant point in towns where land is dear or commenced the manufacture in 1849, when in space restricted. The size and capacity of gas- consequence of the high duties on English holders went on increasing until in 1858 a gas-pens two factories were established, and these holder 162ft.in diameter and of 1,037,000 cubic feet capacity was made in Birmingham, and erected in Glasgow. Since then, however, holders of still larger dimensions have been made, and several are now at work in London which contain nearly two million cubic feet of gas. Chains, cables, and anchors, cast-iron hollow ware, the nail trade, the special trades of the various localities, the Stourbridge fireclay, ceramic manufactures, glass, salt, light- The especial value of these reports, perhaps, houses, the gun, jewellery, button, and other lies in the fact that they were written, col- In noticing subsequently the action of cartrades of Birmingham follow next, and are lected, compiled, and edited by those who are bonic oxide in the conversion of iron into steel, accompanied by some useful statistics, as well busily engaged in the trades whereof the work the author makes a practical suggestion which as by some practical hints well worthy of con- treats. The whole plan of the book is novel, is worth attention. He has shown that the sideration by those interested in the various no such work having previously appeared, gas is most freely absorbed by iron at the branches of trade and manufacture. Mechanical whilst the originality of the matter is self-lowest red heat, or perhaps a lower temperaengineering and chemistry occupy an impor-evident. The aim with which the committees ture. In order, however, that the iron may tant position, having each had the honour of a set out was to describe the "date of introspecial committee, the results of whose labours duction and early history, the obsolete articles, are diffused throughout the entire volume, under the various heads.

Mr. Timmins contributes an excellent paper

factories (now six or seven) produce about
50,000 gross of pens per week, against 16,000 or
18,000 made in 1849. In Germany there are
two factories-producing, however, very few
pens. In America the high war-tariff has
caused the establishment of four factories,
and these, aided by skilled workmen from
England, are producing about 10,000 gross
of pens per week.

the curiosities and oddities, the increase since
1849, the effects of the spread of civilisation
on the supply of raw material, the new pro-

The Absorption of Gases by Metals—Conver-
sion of Iron into Steel-Inverse Filtration.
Nour last we noticed some metallic admixtures
with iron, and alluded very briefly to the
physical properties conferred on iron by its alloy
with other metals. The names of "tungsten
steel," "titanic steel," and others will readily
occur to our readers. To-day we notice the
absorption of gases by iron. The extraordinary
researches of Mr. Graham, the master of the
Mint, have resulted in the discovery, not
altogether unexpected, that iron absorbs some
gases as a sponge does water.
It was well
known that cast iron when melted gives off a
considerable quantity of gas. This was ex-
amined by Cailletet, and found to be a mix-
ture of carbonic oxide, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
the source of which cannot be doubtful.
Mr. Graham found in his experiments that
wrought-iron wire gives off gas freely at a red
heat, the gas consisting for the most part of
carbonic oxide. After exhausting the iron of
carbonic oxide, he heated it again to redness,
and gradually cooled it in an atmosphere of
the same gas. After repeating the experiment
several times, Mr. Graham came to the con-
clusion that pure iron is capable of taking up at
a low red heat, and holding when cold, 4.15
volumes of carbonic oxide gas. He supposes
then that wrought iron in the course of its
preparation may occlude six or eight times its
volume of the gas, which is carried about
ever after. How the qualities of the iron are
effected, the author proceeds to say, by the
presence of such a substance, no way metallic
in its character, locked up in so strange a way,
but capable of reappearing under the influence
of heat at any time with the elastic tension of
a gas, is a subject which metallurgists may
find worthy of investigation.

be converted into steel the gas must be decomposed. The carbonic oxide (C2 O2) parts with half its carbon, which is appropriated by the iron, and carbonic acid (CO2) escapes. This decomposition can only be effected at a

that acieration

high temperature. Hence, Mr. Graham thinks may be promoted by alternation of temperature frequently repeated. Alternations of temperature, he says, are not unlikely to occur during the usual iväg process of cementation; but he thinks they might be properly regulated with advantage, and the process may admit of being abridged in point of time. We look upon it as more than probable that these valuable experiments of Mr. Graham may result in important improvements in the manufacture of steel.

In the same paper it is shown that iron will absorb and hold a small proportion of hydrogen gas, the iron becoming white and looking like the galvanised metal. Mr. Graham shows that copper is another metal having the power to occlude gases. Wrought copper wire exposed to hydrogen at a red heat was found to absorb 0.306 of its volume of that gas. Relative to copper we have some further information from M. Caron, who, while refining this metal, observed certain phenomena which led him to believe that when in a state of fusion it had the power of absorbing certain gases. The author melted a small bar of copper in an atmosphere of hydrogen, and observed that as soon as it began to run the mass swelled, and numerous bubbles appeared on the surface. He observed at the same time the formation of a little steam; and as all the specimens of copper he experimented with gave the same result he concludes that all commercial coppers contain a little oxide. While in a state of perfect fusion the surface of the metal was perfectly still; but as it cooled the hydrogen escaped from the mass, projecting small globules of the metal; and on breaking the ingot when quite cold, the interior was found to have a number of small cavities. M. Caron does not seem to have ascertained how much hydrogen was permanently retained by the copper.

Mr. Carey Lea, in an account of some new manipulations, gives a method of what he calls "inverse filtration," which is very simple, and will be found useful in many cases. When, for example the mother liquor is to be separated from crystals, or caustic potash is to be filtered, or generally when solid and liquid

ALBERT MEMORIAL IN HYDE
PARK.

tional to the "work" attained, and inversely pro- THE
portional to the diameter of the shot or shell.
The resistance of wrought-iron plates equally
well made varies as the square of their thickness.
THIS canopy-roof, with its tower spire, is
Placing them at an angle to the line of fire not only very great and w very important
diminishes the effect of the shot in the proportion work, but, in all probability, it is the greatest
of the sine of the angle of incidence to unity. and the most important artistic work in metal in
The resistance of plates to perforation is hardly existence in the world. The magnitude of their
effected by a backing of wood simply, but much undertaking was thoroughly appreciated by the
increased by a rigid backing of iron combined artists when they resolved that it might be done,
with wood, or of granite, iron, brick, &c., must and that it should be done.
The first step, says
of the shot's effect being transferred to the the Art Journal, was to consider, and finally to
backing, which suffers proportionately, Iron-determine, the proportions of the whole work,
built ships with compact oak or teak backing are and of its component parts. The exceeding grace
stronger than similarly clad wooden ships; the and beauty of proportion which characterise the
best form of backing being wood combined with whole cannot be felt in all their power until the
horizontal plates of iron as in the Chalmers, canopy covers the statue, and the spire crowns
Bellerophon, and Hercules targets. Palliser's the canopy; still, from what the work is as it now
bolts are found to be the best for securing iron stands, a fair estimate may be formed of the ex-
plates. An inner skin of iron is almost essential, cellence of the eventual effect. In these days of
for it not only renders the backing more compact, iron-building, the framing of a structure in that
but prevents many splinters from passing into metal which should combine absolute strength
the ship. Every ironclad, whether built of wood with the utmost consistent lightness, would not
or iron, should therefore have an inner iron skin. present any serious difficulties. Wrought iron
Laminated armour is much inferior to solid was employed for the whole of the framework,
armour. We have attempted to show that on and cast iron for the structural parts that were
these important subjects, our artillerymen are to be built upon this framework. All the more
not blundering in the dark. They assert their distinguished visible portions of the work, the
power of building guns equal to any work that bases and capitals of columns, the cornices, crest-
has hitherto been set before them, but it is for ings, finials, and other similar details, and with
the navy to say, and to say quickly, what they them the cross that was to crown the entire edi-
Then was to
want and what weight of piece they can carry fice, were to be of a fine bronze.
and manage. The battle of Lissa proved that be taken into consideration the principle that was
boarding is impossible and ramming very diffi- to govern the production of the general surface
cult; sailors must betake themselves to their ornamentation, and with which the means to be
guns, and lead the world in rapidity and accuracy employed for the protection of the ironwork
of fire, as they have long done in the manage- from the atmosphere was to be associated. Like
ment of their ships. One more lesson from Lissa a true master of his art, Mr. Skidmore has con.
is that there may be occasions when the posses-verted this grave difficulty into an element of his
sion of breechloaders may enable an extra broad- success. He has covered with lead the whole of
side to be delivered at close quarters. We have the ironwork that otherwise would be visible,
the strongest muzzle-loading guns, but is it, after and consequently would be exposed to atmo
all, impossible to find some system of breech- spheric action. Lead and bronze are the only
loading which may, when applied to the Arm- visible, and therefore the only assailable, metals.
strong coil construction, give us that combination This same leadwork is wrought into an elabo
of strength with facility of loading and safety to rate series of exquisite surface-designs, of which
the men, capable of satisfying all the requirements the leading motive is to form settings for innu-
of modern naval welfare? Has Krupp's system merable pieces of polished agate, onyx, jasper,
of breechloading been fairly tried with the Arm. cornelian, crystal, marble, granite, and other
strong gun?
richly-coloured hard substances, together with
inlays of enamels of various hues. The cross
that forms the finial of the memorial is a work of
great dignity, executed in bronze, with inlays of
stones and rich gilding; it is a Latin cross,
extremities, and also at the intersection of its
limbs, a strict simplicity of form is not main-
tained. It stands upon a highly-enriched globe,
which, in its turn, rests upon the foliated capital
of a single cylindrical shaft, wreathed towards its
head with spiral enrichment, and, lower down,
wrought to an octagonal section, having four of
its faces studded with gem.work, while a statue
is placed in front of each of its other four faces.
Sixteen bronze statues of various heights, the
four principal ones being eight feet high, are
grouped about the several stages of the spire,
and add greatly to the dignified beauty of the
whole composition.

A NEW SUBSTANCE.

NIKLES, Professor of Chemistry at Nancy,

matters have to be rapidly separated on a large M. recently announced to this Yeatley of severe in outline, and yet at its head and other

a

scale, Mr. Lea makes use of a small funnel, over the mouth of which he stretches a piece of stout muslin and ties it securely round the neck. Then on the stem of the funnel he passes a piece of india-rubber tubing, which may be several feet in length, or it may be short, and the difference made up by inserting piece of glass tubing. The funnel and tube are then filled with water, the open end of the tube being closed with the finger, and the funnel is quickly inverted in the vessel containing the mixture to be filtered. We have here a combination of filter and siphon, and the pressure of the column of water in the longer leg of the siphon greatly expedites the operation. Our chemical readers will see at once in how many cases this simple method will be applicable. It is sometimes necessary to place filtering paper inside the muslin, and in doing this some precautions must be taken which will suggest themselves to every practical man.

ENGLISH GUNNERY EXPERIMENTS.

N elaborate review of a series of reports on ΑΝ gunnery, by Captain W.H. Noble, M.A., Royal Artillery, recently appeared in the Times. The following practical conclusions may, says the by English gunnery experiments:-For actual writer of the article, be regarded as established perforation of iron-plated targets of modern con

Sciences that he had succeeded in obtaining per-
chloride of lead, a curious substance derived from
the only compound of lead and chloride, and which
now must be called protochloride. The latter is
obtained directly by subjecting lead to the in-
fluence of chlorine by the application of heat, or
else by treating litharge with hydrochloric acid.
It crystallises in needles, is volatile, and cannot be
decomposed by heat. M. Niklés has obtained the
new compound by exposing the protochloride to
the action of a current of chlorine in a solution of
chloride of lime. The perchloride thus obtained is
a yellow liquid emitting a strong smell of chlorine,
and is a powerful agent for communicating that
element to other substances. It will dissolve gold,
and produces, with aniline and the analogous com-
pounds, those beautiful colours for, which those
substances are so remarkable. With morphine,
it yields a colour similar to that of the horizon at
sunrise; and with brucine, a rich cherry-red.
Now, brucine and strychnine, both vegetable
bases extracted from nux vomica, are very diff.
cult to distinguish from each other, and here per-
chloride of lead steps in as a useful agent; for it
so happens that it does not produce red with
strychnine as it does with brucine, and may there-
other. It serves the same purpose with regard
fore be used to distinguish one substance from the
to morphine and the other alkaloids of opium; it
will likewise detect bi-carbonate of lime in pot
able water by producing a yellow tint, and help
since it precipitates the former from their solu.
to distinguish salts of lead from those of bismuth,

tions and not the latter. It will carbonise cane.

PRIVATE BILLS FOR 1867.

ACCORDING to the "General List " published Commons, there are 317 bills in Parliament this year, 152 of which are railways; but of the 152 very few are for new railways, the bills being principally for extensions of time, abandonments, amalgamations, and deviations of lines already authorised. The others are gasworks, waterdoubt the greatest fighting bill of the session will works, enclosures, improvements, and other misThe most important and no be the Metropolis Gas Bill, by which it is proposed to put all the gas companies within the meWorks, and to supply to the public gas of pure tropolitan area (of which there are twenty-two), under the coutrol of the Metropolitan Board of

by the Private Bill Office of the House of

cellaneous works.

struction, heavy guns are required, and as these sugar and not glucose, and blacken aniline with. quality at uniform rates in all the districts, the

must be capable of throwing a projectile with a high velocity, they must be strong enough to stand large charges of powder. The projectiles must be of hard material. Palliser's chilled iron shot and shell are equal, if not superior, to steel, and far cheaper. Shells should be so constructed that the bursting charges may act in a forward direction; their heads must be solid, and the best form is the "ogival pointed." With hard projectiles, the perforation is directly propor.

out producing any effect either on fecula, starch,
or dextrine. Like other perclorides, it combines
with ether to form a very caustic compound,
which attacks both gold and platinum, besides
other metals.

It is stated that the Northern Telegraph connecting Europe with America, via Russia, will soon be in working order,

rate proposed being 3s. 6d. per 1,000 cubic feet. The Metropolis Gas Bill will, no doubt, receive great support from the public, and unanimous opposition from the various gas companies.

The scientific committee appointed in Sweden to ascertain the importance of the coal layers just discovered in Scania, in that country, has given in a most favourable report.

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MACHINERY FOR DRESSING FIBRES. NE of the most important improvements we have seen in respect of machinery for dressing fibres, in which improvements are constantly being made, has recently been patented by Messrs. Daniel Chadwick and G. A. C. Bremme, of Liverpool. Their invention consists in the construction of a heckle disc, and in the combination therewith of a clearer or clearing disc set at such an angle with the heckle disc that, while it is in contact therewith and the heckle pins pass through it at one part, it is so far separated from it at the part diametrically opposite that the heckle pins are clear of it at that part. The fibres to be operated upon are fed to the heckle pins at that part of their revolution where they pass through the clearer, and as the disc revolves the pins are drawn out of the clearer, and the fibres held by them are prevented passing through the clearer. A distinguishing feature in this invention is that the heckle teeth or pins revolve in a plane parallel or nearly so with the axes of the feeding rollers, while in former machinery for dressing fibres the heckle teeth or pins have been made to revolve in planes at right angles or nearly so with the axes of the feeding rollers. In other words, the shaft round which the heckle teeth or pins in the machinery we are now describing revolve is at right angles or nearly so with the axes of the feeding rollers instead of being

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ing to the arrangement just described; figs. 2 and 3 are sections through the lines A B and C Messrs. Chadwick and Bremme's machinery is D respectively of fig. 1. a is a bedplate, and b arranged as follows:-Upon a bed plate standards standards bolted thereon; these standards carry are bolted, which support in bearings a shaft, on bearings supporting a shaft c, on which fast and which are keyed fast and loose pulleys and a loose pulleys de are keyed. f is a metal disc also metal disc. To this disc segmental pieces of keyed on the shaft c; gg are segmental pieces of wood are secured; they carry heckle combs or wood secured to the disc f; these pieces g carry pins. Other standards support in bearings a heckle combs or teeth h; ii are other standards. second shaft, set at an angle with the first-named which support in bearings a second shaft j, set at shaft. This shaft has keyed thereon a clearer or an angle, as shown, with the shaft c. The sha clearing disc composed of a frame with segj has keyed thereon a clearer or clearing disc k, mental openings corresponding to the segmental composed of a frame, as seen in fig. 3, with segpieces of wood, and of coverings to the openings mental openings 1 1 corresponding to the segwith holes or slots therein for the heckle combs mental pieces g g, and of coverings to the openor pins to work through; or these coverings may ings 1 1, with holes therein as shown at m, or slots consist of bars to fit between the rows of pins. as shown at n, for the heckle combs or teeth h to The feeding rollers are held in brackets bolted to work through. o o are the feeding rollers held in rails which are secured to the standards before-brackets p bolted to rails q, which are secured to named; these brackets also support a shaft on the standards ii; the brackets p also support a which is a screw or worm wheel which gears into shaft r, on which is a worm in gear with a worm a wheel on the lower feed roller. This shaft wheel s on the lower feed roller o. The shaft r carries a pulley actuated from a pulley on the carries a pulley t driven from a pulley u on the shaft of the clearer. The shafts of the heckle disc shaft j. The shafts c and j revolve together and and of the clearer revolve together and simulta-simultaneously, and the clearing disc k carries neously. One of the discs carries near its periphery at intervals projections or arms which fit into corresponding recesses in the other disc.

Fig. 1 of the accompanying engraving is a plan partly in section of a machine constructed accord

near its periphery at intervals projections or arms v, which take into corresponding recesses in the disc f. Owing to the heckle disc f and the clearing disc k being set at an angle to each other, the heckle teeth pass through the disc k when they come opposite, that is to say, facing

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