true nature and influence of Christianity: "To understand history, it is supposed that we have some understanding of that which constitutes its working principle; but it is history which furnishes us the proper test by which to ascertain whether this principle has been rightly apprehended. Certainly, then, our understanding of the history of Christianity will depend on the conception we have formed to ourselves. of Christianity itself. Now, Christianity we regard not as a power that has sprung up out of the hidden depths of man's nature, but as one which descended from above, because heaven opened itself for the rescue of revolted humanity-a power which, as it is exalted above all that human nature can create out of its own resources, must impart to that nature a new life, and change it from its inmost centre." 1

To conclude this criticism, for we do not speak of the chapter on the "Condition of Women," we may express our opinion that the work will doubtless be read, partly because of its entertaining style and matter, and partly because it so thoroughly falls into the current of modern thought, which ignores the supernatural in behalf of naturalism; and for these reasons it will mislead. But, if Christianity is from God, and is capable of vindicating itself as such; and, if truth is consistent, and destined to triumph over inconsistency and error-then a work so unsatisfactory psychologically, logically, and morally, so unsatisfactory as this is historically, theologically, and religiously -must soon give place to something better.

1 Introduction to Neander's Church History.

ARTICLE II.

DARWINISM.

BY FREDERIC GARDINER, D.D., PROFESSOR IN THE BERKELEY DIVINITY SCHOOL, MIDDLETOWN, CONN.

MR. DARWIN had been long known to the scientific world before he propounded the theories which have now made his name familiar in every household. He was distinguished as a naturalist as well by the extent, variety, and accuracy of his observations as by the singular fairness of his statement of them. The most widely known among his many scientific works are probably his "Journal of Researches: Voyage of the Beagle," his investigations of the Orchids, and of the facts concerning climbing plants; the last accomplished during the author's confinement in a sick room. The first of these works has a more than technical interest, because the author compares the fauna and flora of many and diverse lands evidently with a mind already under the influence of those speculations which afterwards took form in the theory of "Natural Selection," and also because he recounts his experiences with the Fuegians and others of the lowest types of the human race. Of these experiences he makes large use in his "Descent of Man," and they have also afforded strong points to the assailants of his theory. His researches upon the Orchids have also served as the basis for opposite arguments. In both cases the faithfulness of his observations has been unquestioned; the controversy is on the inferences to be deduced from them.

The series of works, however, by which Mr. Darwin is most generally known are those in which he propounds, supports, and expands those theories which bear his name. The first of this series is entitled "The Origin of Species'

(in one volume) and has had a wide circulation. Its fifth carefully revised edition, published in this country, contains the most exact presentation of the author's views. This book promised a successor in which the facts on which the theory rested should be more fully presented. After a considerable delay this appeared, under the title of "Animals and Plants under Domestication," in two volumes. In this, besides presenting such facts as he had proposed to bring forward, the author also broached a new and remarkable theory called "Pangenesis," designed to be supplementary of his main hypothesis, of which more hereafter. These works, but especially the earlier one, excited a wide and profound interest. One point, however, was still left in some uncertainty whether the author would extend his theory to include the origin of man, and if he did this in regard to man as an animal, whether he would also include under the operations of the same theory his higher intellectual and moral nature. Mr. Darwin's disciples were somewhat divided about the matter. All possibility of doubt has been finally removed by the publication of his two volumes on "The Descent of Man," in which the broadest ground is frankly taken of the derivation of man's whole nature from lower and still lower animal forms, until at last all organisms are ultimately derived by the simple process of "Natural Selection,' or (as it is otherwise called) "the survival of the fittest," from one common source. In the case of man, Mr. Darwin traces back the probable line of the chain as far as some creature resembling "the larvae of marine Ascidians."

It is scarcely more than one quarter of this last work that is immediately concerned with the subject of its title; the remaining volume and a half being occupied with the development of a fresh supplementary hypothesis, entitled "Sexual Selection." The former supplementary hypothesis, although considered by its author as important to the completeness of his main theory, is yet one which he is willing to have set aside by those who still adhere to "Natural Selection "; the latter he makes essential as being, in all the higher forms of

life, an important co-operating agency in the change of hereditary structures.

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The theory of Darwin is to be distinguished from the theory of evolution, as one special hypothesis is to be distinguished from a vastly more general one in which it is included. If Darwinism were proved true, it would of course establish, so far as the forms of life on this earth are concerned, the theory of evolution; but if Darwinism were proved false, evolution would have lost nothing but the discomfiture of one and just now, perhaps, the most popular one of the supposable theories of its modus operandi. Among the most able and zealous opponents of Darwinism are to be reckoned some of the strongest supporters of evolution. It is impossible, therefore, to discuss the Darwinian theory without saying something on the general subject of evolution, and it should be kept in mind that, on the one hand, while arguments in favor of Darwinism all go to establish evolution, those in favor of evolution generally do but afford standing ground for, and do not enter on the proof of, Darwinism; and, on the other hand, arguments against evolution are equally conclusive against Darwinism, while those against Darwinism specifically, scarcely affect the more general subject of evolution.

Mr. Darwin's main theory may be thus stated: every plant as well as animal transmits to its offspring a general likeness to itself; along with the general likeness thus inherited, each individual has also slight differences which may be of any kind and tending in any direction (the causes of these variations being scarcely at all understood, Mr. Darwin frequently speaks of them as "accidental," although fully believing them to be under the control of laws not yet discovered); all plants and animals tending to increase in number in geometrical progression, while the total vegetable and animal population of the world (apart from man and his agency) remains nearly stationary, there arises among them all a severe struggle for existence; in this struggle those individuals will survive and transmit offspring which are best adapted to the conditions of life in which they are placed, that is, "the fittest will sur

vive"; if now there come about any change in the conditions of life, either from a change in the earth itself, or from the spread of any species into a different part of the earth, the slight variations among the offspring of any plant or animal will determine which individuals will be most likely to survive, and so again among their offspring, until these "slight individual differences" have been gradually accumulated into races, species, genera, etc., etc.; at the same time a portion of the offspring continuing ordinarily under unchanged conditions, will continue itself unchanged, and thus, for the most part, the old species will in some localities be continued along with the new under other conditions; theoretically, such a process should present every possible gradation of plant and animal from the lowest to the highest, but practically so small a part of their remains is preserved, and of that part science has as yet examined only such a minute fraction, that the absence of the connecting links is sufficiently explained; the time during which organic life has existed upon our globe is practically infinite.

Mr. Darwin by no means denies that other causes, such, e.g. as outward circumstances of heat and cold, etc., may have had a direct effect in the modification of species; but these he considers as altogether secondary, the main law by which all diversities of plants and animals have been produced being natural selection, or the survival of the fittest.

It will be observed that the theory rests upon a number of data, some of which will be universally admitted, while others are more or less seriously questioned by scientific men. It may be well in advance to call attention to two points as those in which the theory stands most in need of evidence - first, the extent to which the accumulation of differences is possible, and secondly, the length of time required for the purpose; while the absence of remains of intermediate forms will doubtless be considered as a further point which requires a fuller explanation. To these points we shall recur.

The reception accorded to this and to Mr. Darwin's other hypotheses has been various. Among those exclusively devo-.