sented by Hupfeld in his uncompleted fragment of a Hebrew Grammar, of the prevalence of short vowels in the early language; the a sound predominating among these. He is thus better prepared to realize the assertion of all the grammars that the present vowel-system is highly artificial, and exhibits the intoning style of the schools and the synagogue. Every service of this kind is inestimable to the student; for probably two thirds of those who take up the study think it as difficult as did the writer of a recently published reminiscence of Professor Stuart, though it is to be feared that a large number never get even a temporary impetus and beguilement such as he records: "Even into the dry, monotonous task of teaching the Hebrew grammar -as it was the practice of Professor Stuart to teach it even to beginners,- he would infuse such life and interest that for the time you forgot the difficulties, the almost unintelligible nature of the language, and of the rules you were trying to master."

An improvement of note is the unequivocal substitution of our w as the sound and equivalent of ", instead of the German w, or v. It is surprising that the latter should have been retained so long, especially in view of the correct statement, in every successive edition of the Grammar, that it is of the greatest importance to understand well the old and genuine sound of every consonant; since very many grammatical peculiarities and changes are dependent on, and can be explained only by the nature of the sounds and their pronunciation. To be sure, the real equivalency of and w was stated in the discussion of the peculiarities of ; but, in face of the retention of the v sound, it may be doubted whether in very many cases there was not an inveterate perplexity in the mind of the student, if, passing beyond the laborious memorizing of the AyinWaw verb, he attempted to give an intelligible account of its apparent wide deviations from the normal form. It is not only in morals that the attempt to combine correct theory with doubtful practice is darkening and bewildering in its effects. All, however, becomes easily intelligible, if kāwām, instead of kāvăm, be brought to comparison with kātāl. It must also, on the old practice, have seemed strange that so common a word as "and" should be pronounced now ri, and again û, as in rule. An ancient Hebrew, it may also be confidently affirmed, would have been astounded to be told that he ever discriminated in his utterance of this connective. The apparent anomaly disappears when the true w sound is employed, and it is seen that, though the pointing is different, the difference of sound is very slight in the initial utterance of 778 wihâārětz, and, which, says Dr. Davies, ought probably to be pronounced, wūmälěkh; the retaining its feeble w sound before the Shureq. The origin of the vowel sounds from the three primary ones is more fully stated and exhibited than heretofore. Fuller, also, and more serviceable are the remarks in the section on the character of the several vowels. For example, Kal and Piel participles become better understood

in their inflection by the statement that short Chireq is sometimes an original lengthened by the tone to e, as in (thy foe), from

originally ayibh.

In the treatment of the verb, we find a useful remark prefixed to the Guttural verbs, to the effect that their deviations can only in part be taken for actual weakness, as in the omission of the doubling by Daghesh forte; while, on the contrary, in forms like 7, the original ă of the preformative is kept, which in the corresponding form of the model verb, 3p, is weakened into . This, it will be seen, has the same aim as so many of the additions and improvements, some of which have already been specified, the explanation of the present phenomena of the language out of its reconstructed earlier condition. Hupfeld, asserting the accumulation by advanced philological inquiry of sufficient facts to explain with great probability the problem of the vocalization and the historical course of its cultivation, states as one of the main points upon which this explanation is founded, that the vocalization was originally far simpler than now, as is established through a comprehensive analogy of language. It is the valuable office of many a little remark and note to call attention to this early simple vocalization.

The sections which treat of the various participial and infinitive forms of nouns derived from the regular and irregular verbs remain as before. The conviction may here be expressed of the exceeding importance of their careful study to any who would gain such a knowledge of Hebrew as not even the most faithful and extensive memorizing of forms can convey, but which comes from feeling the force of the form as built on a certain plan from the stem-word. Of the word on, for example, it may be learned from the lexicon that it is applied to a godly, pious man, as well as to a kind and merciful one. But to the inquirer into the significance of its structural form may there not be suggested the important and beautiful lesson that such a one both receives and exemplifies the grace of God, the source of all grace of character? Hupfeld strongly insists on the proper passive force of the form as a denominative, signifying one who is the object of God's mercy. Certainly it is allied to the passive participle, although the same form occurs with an active signification in intransitive verbs. May not the best conciliation of the etymological indications and the facts of the word's usage come from supposing it a pregnant designation of one in whom inhere the distinctions and the virtues of the "gracious state" of which the old divines speak?

One must seek to have the exact correspondence between certain Hebrew and English terms felt instantly and instinctively. Thus the very appellation of the language may suggest to us that Abraham, from whom it came, was "the Hebrew," not merely as an immigrant into Canaan, but, being such, was called by the native inhabitants of the land, as he came from "the over side" of the Euphrates, the "over-sider," as we say

"outsider." These native inhabitants, in turn, by a similar Hebrew termination of the word for "Canaanites," are thereby designated in a manner exactly answering to our "lowlanders," or "Netherlanders." Amid the multitude of subjects in Old Testament study, some notice of all which seems desirable, and almost imperative, a few exercises, at least, should be devoted to the branch which has been glanced at, the structure of words in their primary forms as distinct from their changes by inflection. It is due to the student that he be directed in the path. Here, as elsewhere, it will rest with him to follow it until conducted into that real acquaintance with a language which transfers the principles and statements of grammars and lexicons from without to within, so that they are a part of the man.

Exception has sometimes been taken to the 'declensions' of Gesenius, as cumbrous and artificial, and even then as not entirely exhaustive. Undoubtedly, statements can be framed, like Ewald's, inclusive under four or five heads, of the changes underlying all the nouns which Gesenius distributes into nine declensions. It may be questioned, however, whether we have not in Gesenius the most convenient method for determining, after an instant's thought, the forms of a noun throughout its whole inflection, of which it is so desirable to be possessed.

A useful page is added by the translator, with the modestly expressed hope that it will perhaps make the complicated inflection of the segholates somewhat plainer. It is believed that the plural in the absolute and with light suffixes points for its origin to the prevalence in the older state of the language of the form, so common in Aramaean.

In the Syntax, Dr. Davies has added on many points foot-notes of a suggestive and illustrative character, or directing to fuller information, as in the case of several references to Ewald's Grammar. He has also appended to the Grammar a Hebrew Reading-Book, with Exercises in Grammar and Composition, designed to aid the student in acquiring the inflections and constructions by presenting suitable matter for translation and analysis, accompanied with copious references to the forms and rules of the grammar.

It is prefaced by some very judicious remarks upon the most approved method of studying Hebrew, in which the author espouses, correctly, we think, the side of a full grammar, rather than a skeleton, or outline, for the beginner, though not insisting that every point should be mastered at first by all learners alike. He makes reference to the views of Gesenius and Winer on this important subject, which were first presented to English readers in the Appendix to Dr. Hackett's Hebrew Exercises, now for many years out of print. The exercises before us, though not so full and elaborate upon some points, are constructed upon the same general plan as those of the work first named, and may be very profitably employed by the instructor.

It is a great advantage of the Student's Hebrew Lexicon, which is dedi

cated to Dr. Roediger, that it contains frequent and valuable references to the Student's Hebrew Grammar. The special and exact adjustment of the works to each other, combined with their inexpensive, convenient, and highly attractive form, may well induce the teacher to recommend them together to the beginner. If the latter shall at a further stage wish to possess a Gesenius or Fürst unabridged, the substantial merits of this compendious book will still cause it to be retained upon his shelves. For, as Dr. Davies says, the work may be regarded as new, though not claiming to be original; presenting everywhere freshness, indicating a measure of independence and of endeavor after progress not, however, in a dogmatic, but in a tentative, spirit. The direction of his efforts may be indicated, according to the author's own characterization of them, as follows:

Fuller indications and illustrations of the affinities and interchanges of the letters have been given, and also of their formative uses or their effect in word-building.

In dealing with derivatives, and particularly those that seem to have more than three radical letters, many improvements have been essayed. The Onomatopoetic origin of many roots is surmised, to which the theory has not been heretofore extended, and notwithstanding the objection of some Sanscrit scholars to such derivation.

As the Assyrian tongue has taken its place among the branches of the Semitic family, the names of the monarchs of that empire occurring in the Bible have tentative Semitic etymologies assigned them.

Comparative philology has been laid under requisition to produce affinities and analogies between words in different forms and of various dialects or languages. A few of the interesting examples under this head may be mentioned. The word on, meaning heat, comes from a root found in Syriac and Arabic, as well as in Hebrew. From this Semitic source, says Dr. Davies (the same root being also found in Coptic) came, through the Arabic, our alchymy, chymist, having reference to heat, as the dissolvent or means of analyzing substances. Hence chymistry is fitly said to be the science of heat. From , bosom, is deduced, through the Arabic, the Italian alcovo our alcove, and (by insertion of the liquid) kóλπos = Italian golfo our gulf; compare Latin sinus, also German busen, for both bosom and bay. The "devouring element" of penny-a-liners has a respectable ancestry in, first, to browse, feed upon'; secondly, to consume with fire.' This mot is regarded as probably mimetic, and traced in the Greek Bopá (ẞi- Вpú- σкw), Welsh pawr, poru, baru, Latin voro, English forage, browse, bread, Gerinan brod.

Among those who encouraged Dr. Davies to undertake this volume and render this service to Hebrew learning, he mentions Dr. Payne Smith, the successor of Dean Alford, at Canterbury; Dr. Gotch, President of Bristol Baptist College; Dr. Hackett, of Rochester Theological Seminary; and

Dr. W. Wright, now Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge, England.

They certainly must feel, in looking upon the completed work, that it is well adapted to the end which the author declares will be, by the favor of God, the coveted reward of his labor- the real aiding of the student to gain a good knowledge of the Old Testament scriptures in the original tongues.

ARTICLE X.

DR. HODGE'S SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.1

AN orator recently addressing the Massachusetts Medical Society remarked that "progress is the pride of the day; and the charm of antiquity is broken. In the early history of the country, medicine and theology were allied together, each having firm faith in the infinite and none in the infinitesimal; but now sugar is the staple article both in theological and medical dispensaries." In the system of theology which Dr. Hodge is giving to the public, there are signs of progress. It contains more of the saccharine element than is found in the older treatises emanating from his school. Still, it is in the main, allopathic rather than homoeopathic in its treatment of its patients. It is in this respect as it should be. It gives evidence of its author's sound mind and extensive learning. It is written in a vigorous and flexile style. It presents theology in a compact form. The spirit of it is candid and fair. It propounds various theories which we regard as untenable, and defends the real truth by some arguments which we regard as inconclusive. The excellences and the faults of the system the excellences being greater than the faults—appear in almost every chapter. Let us look, for example, at volume one, part one, chapter one, entitled "Origin of the Idea of God."

Dr. Hodge supposes that the existence of God can be proved, and also that it is self-evident. We have an "innate knowledge" of his being. Dr. Hodge defines innate knowledge to be "that which is due to our constitution as sentient, rational, and moral beings." "The soul is so con

stituted that it sees certain things to be true immediately in their own light. They need no proof. Men need not be told or taught that the things thus perceived are true." These immediate perceptions are called "intuitions," "primary truths," "laws of belief," "innate knowledge or ideas"

1 Systematic Theology. By Charles Hodge, D.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Princeton, New Jersey Two Vols. pp. 648 and 732. New York: Charles Scribner and Company; London and Edinburgh: T. Nelson and Sons. 1872.