CAEDMON

In the monastery of this abbess [Hild] was a certain brother especially distinguished and gifted with the grace of God, because he was in the habit of making poems filled with piety and virtue. Whatever he learned of holy writ through interpreters he gave forth in a very short time in poetical language with the greatest of sweetness 10 and inspiration, well wrought in the English tongue. Because of his songs the minds of many men were turned from the thoughts of this world and incited toward a contemplation of the heavenly life. There were, to be sure, others after him among the Angles who tried to compose sacred poetry, but none of them could equal him; because his instruction in poetry was 20 not at all from men, nor through the aid of any man, but it was through divine inspiration and as a gift from God that he received the power of song. For that reason he was never able to compose poetry of a light or idle nature, but only the one kind that pertained to religion and was fitted to the tongue of a godly singer such as he.

This man had lived the life of a lay30 man until he was somewhat advanced in years, and had never learned any songs. For this reason often at the banquets where for the sake of merriment it was ruled that they should all sing in turn at the harp, when he would see the harp approach him, he would arise from the company out of shame and go home to his house. On one occasion he had done this and had 40 left the banquet hall and gone out to the stable to the cattle which it was his duty to guard that night. Then in due time he lay down and slept, and there stood before him in his dream a man who hailed him and greeted him and called him by name: "Caedmon,

and said: "I cannot sing anything; and for that reason I left the banquet and came here, since I could not sing." 50 Once more the man who was speaking with him said: "No matter; you must sing for me.' Then he answered: "What shall I sing?" Thereupon the stranger said: "Sing to me of the beginning of things." When he had received this answer he began forthwith to sing, in praise of God the Creator, verses and words that he had never heard, in the following manner:

Now shall we praise the Prince of heaven, The might of the Maker and his manifold thought,

The work of the Father; of what wonders he wrought,

The Lord everlasting, when he laid out the worlds.

He first raised up for the race of men
The heaven as a roof, the holy Ruler.
Then the world below, the Ward of
mankind,

The Lord everlasting, at last established
As a home for man, the Almighty Lord.

60

Then he arose from his sleep, and 70 all that he had sung while asleep he held fast in memory; and soon afterwards he added many words like unto them, befitting a hymn to God. The next morning he came to the steward who was his master and told him of the gift he had received. The steward immediately led him to the abbess and related what he had heard. She bade assemble all the wise and learned men 80 and asked Caedmon to relate his dream in their presence and to sing the song that they might give their judgment. as to what it was or whence it had come. They all agreed that it was a divine gift bestowed from Heaven. They then explained to him a piece of holy teaching and bade him if he could, to turn that into rhythmic verse.

When he received the instruc- 90

tion of the learned men, he departed for his house. In the morning he returned and delivered the passage assigned him, turned into an excellent poem.

Thereupon, the abbess, praising and honoring the gift of God in this man, persuaded him to leave the condition of a layman and take monastic vows. 10 And this he did with great eagerness. She received him and his household into the monastery and made him one of the company of God's servants and commanded that he be taught the holy writings and stories. He, on his part, pondered on all that he learned by word of mouth, and just as a clean beast chews on a cud, transformed it into the sweetest of poetry. His songs 20 and poems were so pleasing that even his teachers came to learn and write what he spoke. He sang first of the creation of the earth, and of the origin of mankind, and all the story of

Genesis, the first book of Moses; and afterwards of the exodus of the Children of Israel from the land of Egypt and the entry into the Promised Land; and many other stories of the Holy Scriptures; the incarnation of Christ, 30 and his suffering and his ascension into heaven; the coming of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the apostles; and finally he wrote many songs concerning the future day of judgment and of the fearfulness of the pains of hell, and the bliss of heaven; besides these he composed many others concerning the mercies and judgments of God. In all of these he strove especially to lead 40 men from the love of sin and wickedness and to impel them toward the love and practice of righteousness; for he was a very pious man and submissive to the rules of the monastery. And he burned with zeal against those who acted otherwise. For this reason it was that his life ended with a fair death.

Beowulf

Questions and Topics. 1. In the brief translations given in the story of Beowulf in Chapter I, observe the characteristics of the verse. Which words alliterate (begin with the same consonant or the same vowel)? Are the alliterative syllables always stressed? How many stresses are there in a line? A division, called caesura, comes near the middle of each line. Find it, and ascertain if there is any difference between the first half line and the second. Summarize the differences in form between Old English poetry and that of modern English in the form of a report to the class. For suggestions on preparing such a report, see the general Introduction, pages 5 and 6.

2. Using a translation of the complete poem, mark passages which show a sense of the beauty or the terror of nature. Are there many such passages? What aspects of nature seem to have made the greatest appeal to the poet?

3. What were the relations of the king to his men? Look up comitatus in the dictionary and note illustrations in Beowulf. Look up feud. What was the duty of the survivor, if a friend or relative were murdered? Was there any alternative?

4. Infer what you can of social customs at Hrothgar's court.

5. Was there any national spirit in the times represented by this oldest English poetry? Why, or why not?

Riddles

Explanatory Notes. The first two of the riddles here translated illustrate the somewhat rare humor found in Old English literature. The third is one of many illustrations of the love of nature. "A Shield" belongs to a group in which instruments of war (the sword, the helmet, the spear, the bow, etc.), are personalized. As war was the principal occupation, it is natural that its tools should seem intimate companions. Swords were often given names, as "Durendal," Roland's sword, and "Excalibur," the sword of Arthur. Beowulf's sword was named "Hrunting." "A Bible" is interesting for its account of the making of the manuscript book in days before the advent of printing. Medieval manuscripts were often gorgeously decorated, with marvelous initial letters, in color, at the beginning of chapters or other divisions. This little poem also testifies

to the power of books to mold men's lives; it is our earliest praise of books.

Questions and Topics. 1. Note the suggestion in "A Bookworm" that not only the bookworm itself but perhaps the human reader may not be "a whit the wiser when the word had been swallowed." Point out other illustrations of wit or humor in the Riddles.

2. What attitude toward war is expressed by "A Shield"?

3. Explain the steps in the manufacture of the manuscript book as outlined in "A Bible." Look up the subject in a reference book, and report on "Books before Printing." Topics to be treated are: materials used in making manuscripts; the predecessors of the fountain-pen; ancient libraries. See if you can find anything about the scriptorium, a picture of it, perhaps. See pages 5 and 6 for suggestions on preparing a report.

Battle of Brunanburh

Explanatory Notes. 1. This poem belongs to the stirring times of Athelstan, a tenthcentury English king. He was the son of Edward the Elder and a lovely peasant girl, and as a boy was handsome and a lover of adventurous deeds. He became king in 924, and preserved the unity of the English realm against the Danes, Welsh, and Scots. Two poems have come down to us which celebrate his exploits at Brunanburh, fought in 937. In one of them we learn how Anlaf, a Danish king, went disguised as a minstrel to spy out the English camp the night before the battle. When the firelight fell on his face, as he was singing to his harp, an English soldier recognized him, and his suspicions were confirmed when he saw Anlaf bury the money which the English gave him for his singing. After he had gone, the soldier told Athelstan that the gleeman was the king of the Danes, but that he had not betrayed him because he had formerly been in his service. The second ballad, presented here in Tennyson's version, records the victory of Athelstan next day.

2. The poem is not difficult to follow if you remember that Athelstan's realm consisted mainly of Mercia and Wessex, in central and western England; all the territory north of the Humber, and more, belonged to Danes and Scots

Questions and Topics. 1. "Bracelet-bestower" (line 3) and "linden-wood" (line 12) are kennings. Explain the meaning of these kennings (see page 20 for definition) and find as many others in this poem as you can.

2. The verse of Tennyson's translation is not the same as that of Old English verse. Point out the differences. In what respects,

however, does Tennyson gain some of the effects of Old English poetry? (For purposes of comparison, see the translations from Beowulf, Finnsburg, and Deor's Lament, pages 11-15). Study the relation of stressed and unstressed syllables. Is the verse trochaic or iambic in general type? Does it rime? What is the effect gained by the long lines?

The Seafarer

1. This translation preserves very accurately the alliteration and meter of the original. Review what is said (page 20) about the characteristics of Old English verse and find illustrations of alliteration (consonant and vowel); number of stressed syllables to the line; kennings, etc.

2. This poem is remarkable for its descriptions of nature. Find the best examples. What contrast is there between the beauty of the land and that of the sea? In the description of the sea, point out words and phrases that indicate the terror inspired, despite its beauty. 3. What do you learn about the personality of the man who wrote the poem?

Child, C. G.: Beowulf. This is an excellent prose translation of the epic.

Gummere, F. B.: The Oldest English Epic. This is the best poetic translation, and the one from which the lines in Chapter I are taken. (This contains also translations of other epic fragments, such as The Fight at Finnsburg.)

II. HISTORY OF THE LITERATURE Brooke, Stopford: English Literature from the the Beginnings to Norman Conquest. Important chapters are II, Old English Heathen Poetry; v, Semi-heathen Poetry; VIII and IX, Caedmon and His School; XI and XII, Cynewulf and His School; XIV, Alfred.

III. TRANSLATIONS (not including Beowulf). Brooke, Stopford: The appendix to English

Literature from the Beginnings to the Norman Conquest contains several translations from early poetry.

Cook and Tinker: Select Translations from Old English Poetry.

Faust and Thompson: Old English Poems.