tion.

Popula- The population of the British province in 1881 numbered | understand and are gradually adopting the more comprehensive
18,850,437, of the feudatory states 3,861,683; total, 22,712,120.
This total number consists of:—

Mohammedans

10,525,150

Hindus

Sikhs

1,121,004

Jains

35,826

Christians

33,420

British Native
Territory. States.
1,137,284 11,662,434
7,130,528 2,121,767 9,252,295
1,716,114
42,678
33,699

Total.

595,110

6,852

279

Buddhists.

2,864

387

3,251

The Punjab has one-fourth of the Mohammedan inhabitants of India, one-twentieth of the Hindus, and eleven-twelfths of the Sikhs. Of the Hindus the classes most largely represented are Játs (4,432,720) and Rajputs (1,677,569). There are in the Punjab certain criminal tribes, always under surveillance, of which the population is at present 13,957.

The tribes of the western hill frontier are Mohammedans and Patláns in the north and Baluchis in the south (with one Pathán tribe among them). There are sixteen principal Pathán tribes, of which the most important are the Momand, Afridi, and Orakzai on the Peshawar border, and the Waziri adjoining Bannú and the Déraját; and seven Baluch tribes on the Dera Ghází Khán border, the chief of which are the Bózdár, Marrí, and Bugtí. Adminis- The British province is divided for administrative purposes into trative thirty-one districts, each under a deputy commissioner, grouped in divisions, six divisions, each under a commissioner.

Hindustani. These two languages are the most generally used
throughout the province, but not equally in all parts. The other
languages in use are more or less local. Játki, spoken by about
1,500,000, belongs chiefly to the south-east districts. The language
of the eastern hill country is a form of Hindi, spoken by about
1,500,000. Dógri is the language of the northern hills, and Kashmirí
of a few large bodies of Kashmir workpeople at Ludiána, Núrpúr,
Amritsar, and some other places. The language of the Patháns of
the northern part of the trans-Indus frontier is Pushtu (see vol. i.
p. 238). Baluchi is spoken on the same frontier, farther south, ad-
jacent to Baluchistan, Sindí at the extreme south, next to Sind,
and Bágrí, a variety of Hindi, in the cis-Sutlej district bordering
on Bikanír. There are also some minor local dialects, and a few
people speaking languages not of the Punjab,-Persian, Bengali,
Mahrathi, Turki, Tibetan, Nipalese. Hindustani is the language
of the law courts and of all ordinary official and other communica-
tions with chiefs and people.

Many books, periodicals, and newspapers are published in some of
these spoken languages, the greatest number in Hindustani, others
in Hindi, Panjabi, Pushtu, and Persian, also some in Sanskrit and
classical Arabic, which are not spoken. During the last quarter of
which the details are published 360 books were registered, 161
Hindustani, 135 Hindi, 36 English, 16 Arabic, the rest bilingual.
There are 7 English and 23 vernacular periodicals, monthly and
fortnightly, and 28 vernacular newspapers are published in the
British province and 3 in native states.

The number of children under instruction in schools in the Pun- Educajab is 184,000 (9000 girls). There are 1559 primary schools for tion. boys, 206 middle schools, 25 high schools, and 3 industrial schools, also a training college and 4 normal schools. For girls there are 321 primary schools, 4 middle, 1 high, 1 industrial, and 4 normal schools. The higher and special educational institutions are the Lahore Government College, the Cambridge University Mission College at Delhi, the Oriental College of the Punjab University, the Medical School, and the Mayo School of Art, the last three at Lahore. A ward's school, for the orphans of Sikh chiefs, established at Ambala in 1867, is about to be extended to receive other upper-class students. The Government department of public instruction was established in 1856. In 1868 the first proposal of a university for the Punjab was made, chiefly at the instance of the literary society called the Anjuman-i-Punjab, with the support of the native chiefs. The institution took the form in 1870 of the Punjab University College, and it was raised in November 1882 to the status of a university. There are several other literary societies in the Punjab besides the Anjuman at Lahore.

The police force numbers 19,827 men, with 580 officers, 68 of whom are Europeans. There is in addition a special frontier police.

The military force in occupation of the Punjab consists of (1) Army. British troops (of which it has a larger proportion than any other province); (2) native troops of the regular Indian army; (3) the Punjab frontier force, a local body of cavalry, infantry, and artillery, ordinarily employed only on the military duties of the western frontier; and (4) the frontier militia, composed of men of the border tribes, both within and without British territory, employed as auxiliary to the regular troops, to garrison certain of the smaller fortified posts along the frontier. There is also a volunteer rifle corps of Europeans at the large stations and on the lines of railway. The total military force, including police, of the native states in connexion with the Punjab is 21,500.

The native states in feudal subordination to the British Government and in connexion with the Punjab are thirty-six in number, thirty-one Hindu and five Mohammedan. Of these many are very insignificant, the rulers being petty Rájput chiefs of old family and small means. The highest chief in rank and importance is the mahárájá of Kashmir and Jammú, a Dógra Rájput (see vol. xiv. p. 12). The next is the mahárájá of PATIALA (q.v.). The Mohammedan state of Bahawalpur on the Sutlej is next, with a popula-metal-work, wood and ivory carving, turned and lacquered woodtion under half a million and a revenue of about 20 lakhs, Next in order are the rájás of Jind and NÁBHA (q.v.), cis-Sutlej states. They are Játs, like the mahárájá of Patiala, of the Phúlkian clan (named from Phúl, the founder of these three houses, in the middle of last century). Next comes the rájá of KAPURTHALA (q.v.) in the fertile Jalandar Doab, of the Ahlúwália family. Of the rest the most important in point of revenue are the states of Mandi in the hill country west of the Sutlej, and Sarmúr in the hills east of that river, under Rajput rulers, and Faridkót and Maler Kotla in the plains, cis-Sutlej, the former Hindu, the latter Mohammedan. Of the 22,700,000 people in the Punjab, in British territory and guages the native states, about 14,000,000 speak the provincial language, Panjabi, which varies in character in different parts of the province. About 4,250,000 speak HINDUSTANI (q.v.), this number including those whose ordinary vernacular is Hindi, but who

Most of the native manufactures of the Punjab are those common Manuto other parts of India, such as the ordinary cotton fabrics, plain factures. woollen blankets, unglazed pottery, ropes and cord, grass matting, paper, leather-work, brass vessels, simple agricultural implements, and the tools used in trades. Other manufactures, not so general, yet not peculiar to the Punjab, are woollen fabrics, carpets and shawls, silk cloths and embroidery, jewellery and ornamental

work, glazed pottery, arms and armour, and musical instruments. But some of these classes of manufacture are represented by work of special kinds or special excellence in particular parts of the Punjab, notably the silk fabrics of Múltán and of Bahawalpur, the capital of the native state; the carpets of Lahore, Peshawar, &c.; the kashi" (see KASHI) or glazed tile-work (an ancient art still practised in a few places); "kóft-kári," inlaid metal-work (gold wire on steel), chiefly made at Gujrát and Sialkót; shawls and other fine woollen fabrics, made by Kashmiri work people at Lndiana and Núrpúr, as well as in Kashmir; "lungis," waist and turban scarfs, made at Peshawar, Bannú, &c. ; silk embroidery for shawls, scarfs, and turbans, at Delhi, Lahore, and Múltán; embroidery on cloth for elephant-trappings, bed and table covers, &c., at Lahore and Multán; enamelled ornaments, in Kangra and Múltán; quill embroidery on leather, in Kangra and Simla; lacquered wood

The India Museum at South Kensington has an excellent series of representations of native artisans and their mode of working, from the pencil of the present director of the Lahore School of Art, Mr J. L Kipling, formerly of the School of Art at Bombay,

Finance.

The

work, Pák Pattan. At Kohat there is a special manufactory of
gun-barrels made of twisted iron straps. There is much excellent
carved wood-work on houses and on boats. Among the Punjab
arts should be mentioned the artificial nose-making practised by a
special class of surgeons at Kángra. Injury has been done to some
of the native arts of the Punjab, as of other parts of India, by
unwise copying of European patterns. The Lahore School of Art
is expected to correct this and promote the study and execution of
native forms and designs. The Lahore Museum contains illustra-
tions of the arts and manufactures, as well as raw products, of the
Punjab, and a large collection of the sculptures, mostly Buddhist,
and many of Greek workmanship, found in the north-west of the
province, chiefly trans-Indus. Upwards of 200 Græco - Buddhist
sculptures were excavated in Yusufzai in 1883 and 1884.
number of visitors to the Lahore Museum during the year 1884
was upwards of 251,000. The value of the imports into the Punjab
during the same year was £981,167, and of the exports £1,083,919.
The chief lines of export and import traffic, apart from the trade
with the immediately adjoining countries, are on the one side the
railway to Delhi and the North-West Provinces, and on the other
the Indus River and Indus Valley Railway to Sind and the sea.
The Punjab exports wheat, tea, rock-salt, sugar, and other pro-
ducts, and articles of local manufacture. English piece-goods,
cutlery and other metal-work, fruits (especially from Afghanistan
and Kashmir), rice, drugs, and spices are among the chief imports.
The most important trade-centres are Delhi, Peshawar, Múltán,
and Amritsar. There is a large amount of both export and import
trade with the countries on the north-west frontier. Efforts were
made for some time by the Government to promote trade between
the Punjab and Kashgar, but without much result. The endeavour
is now being carried on by private enterprise. There are great
difficulties in the hill country between, where the goods have to be
carried on mules and ponies.

The revenue of the British province is £3,232,349. Of this sum
£1,605,243 (consisting of land revenue £1,220,880, and minor
items £384,363) goes to the imperial treasury; £1,410,379 is
provincial, raised and expended in the province in addition to an
imperial grant; and £216,727 is derived from local rates and mis-
cellaneous income, and is locally expended.

Com- The total length of railways in the province now (1885) open for
munica- traffic is 1205 miles. The main central line from Delhi to Pesha-
tion. war is 645 miles in length, of which 125 are east of the Jumna in
the North-West Provinces, and 520 in the Punjab. Other lines now
open are Lahore to Múltán 208 miles, and 10 to Shir-Sháh, the
port of Múltán on the Chináb, Múltán to Bahawalpur 63, Delhi
to Riwari 52, Riwari to Hissár 89, Hissár to Firózpur 130, Amritsar
to Pathankot 67, Wazírábád to Sialkot 27, Lála Músa (near
Gujrát) to Pind Dadan Khán and the Salt Mines 62, Ráwal Pindí
to Khushhálgarh 77. Other lines are under construction. There
are 1467 miles of metalled road, 23,156 unmetalled, and 2676 miles
of navigable river. In this country of great rivers, crossing lines
of road, the value of boat-bridges is very great. During the five
years following the construction of the bridge of boats over the
Indus at Déra Ismail Khán the annual camel traffic between
Afghanistan and the Punjab by the Gumal Pass, through the hills
on the west, increased from 50,000 to 80,000, with corresponding
increase of the "tirní" or grazing-tax paid by the Povinda camel-
drivers. This trade-route and this class of carriers are of some im-
portance. For a long time to come they are not likely to make
way for other means of transport by road or railroad, though the
trade will grow. The Povinda are a travelling tribe belonging to
the Ghilzai country in Afghanistan. They make annual trade
journeys into India by this route, which is an easy and good one,
The Sikhs imposed
capable of being turned to more account.
heavy duties on the goods they brought. The remission of these
duties by the British Government greatly encouraged the trade,
which is now further helped by the boat-bridge across the Indus.
There are many passes through the hills between British India and
Afghanistan, of which the principal are-the Khyber in the north,
close to Peshawar, the nearest way to Cabul; the Bolan in the
south, approached from Shikárpur and Jacobábád in Sind, the way
to Quetta and Candahar; and between them three others looking
towards Ghazní, namely, Gumal Pass, the valley of the united
Gumal and Zhob rivers opposite Déra Ismail Khán, and the Kurram
and Dawar routes opposite Bannú.

History.

While the amount of railway and other traffic has been steadily increasing with the facilities afforded, the demands on the postoffice and telegraph have likewise been growing rapidly. The annual number of letters and post-cards, now about twenty millions, has nearly doubled in ten years. The telegraph has had a fluctuating increase in the number of messages, which during the year 1884 was upwards of 142,000.

History.For the early history of the Punjab from the Aryan immigration to the rise of the Mogul dynasty the reader may consult the article INDIA (vol. xii. p. 779 sq.). It deserves, however, to be specially noted here with reference to that period that from the time of Alexander onwards Greek settlers remained in

the Punjab, and that Greek artists gave their services for Buddhist work and introduced features of their own architecture in Indian as well as Grecian buildings. Besides the bases and capitals of large Greek columns at Sháh-deri (Taxila) and elsewhere, numerous sculptures of Greek workmanship have been found at various places. These are single statues (probably portraits), also figures of Buddha, and representations of scenes in his legendary history, and other subjects. They are obtained from ruins of monasteries and other buildings, from mounds, and the remains of villages or monumental topes. Of Buddhist buildings now remaining the most conspicuous as well as distinctive in character are the topes (sthupa), in shape a plain hemisphere, raised on a platform of two or more stages. One of the largest of these is at Manikyála, 14 miles east of Rawal Pindí. These Buddhist buildings and sculptures are all probably the work of the two centuries before and the three or four after the beginning of the Christian era. The character of the sculptures is now well known from the specimens in the India Museum, South Kensington, and both originals and casts of others in the Lahore Museum. Unfortunately they have no names or inscriptions, which give so much value to the sculptures of the Bharhut tope.

The several bodies of settlers in the Punjab from the earliest Tribes times have formed groups of families or clans (not identical with and clans. gener. Indian castes, but in many cases joining them), which have ally preserved distinct characteristics and followed certain classes of occupation in particular parts of the country. Some of the existing tribes in the Punjab are believed to be traceable to the early Aryan settlers, as the Bhatti tribe, whose special region is Bhattiana south of the Sutlej, and who have also in the village of Pindi Bhattián a record of their early occupation of a tract of country on the left bank of the Chinab, west of Lahore. The Dogra, another Aryan clan, belong to a tract of the lower hills between the Chináb and the Rávi. Others similarly have their special ancient localities. To the earlier settlers-the dark race (Dasyú) whom the Aryans found in the country, and who are commonly spoken of as aborigines-belonged, as is supposed, the old tribe called Takka, whose name is found in Taksha-sila or Taxila. And from the later foreigners again, the Indo-Scythians, are probably descended the great Ját tribe of cultivators, also the Gújars, a pastoral people and traders, and others. Some of the tribes or sections of them, having received the Hindu faith and the system of caste, have afterwards given large bodies of converts to Mohammedanism, so that there are now Hindus and Mohammedans of the same tribe continuing to bear the same name. There are Mohammedan Rájputs, and there are both Hindu and Mohammedan Játs, and so with others.

It was during the events which brought Bábar, the first of the Sikh Mogul dynasty, to the throne that the sect of the Sikhs arose. sect. Nának, the founder, derived his first ideas of the movement he was to lead from Kabír of Banáras, a Mohammedan by birth (it is believed), who joined himself to a sect of Hindus and strove to give to their religion a new form and spirit free from idolatry. And the Sikh religion of the Punjab, founded on this model, was a reformed and monotheistic Hinduism. Nának was born in 1469 at Talwandi on the Ravi, and lived to the age of seventy, leaving a large number of followers at his death. The name Sikh means disciple," and the strength of the movement lay in the relation of the disciple to the "guru" or spiritual guide. In the time of Bábar's successor, Humáyún (who was only in the Punjab during the temporary success of his rival, Shír Khán Súr), the Sikhs were under the direction of the second of their gurús, Angad (1539-1552), and of the third, Amar Dás (1552-1574). During the long reign of Akbar (1556-1605) the Sikhs increased in number and power under the mild and liberal rule of a Mohammedan emperor who was more than tolerant in all matters of religion. He himself sought diligently for knowledge of other faiths, and Amar Dás, the Sikh gurú, was one of those who had conferences with him. Rain Dás, son-in-law of Amar Dás, succeeded him in 1574. He received from Akbar a gift of a piece of land, on which he dug the large square tank afterwards called Amritsar ("the pool of immortality"). In the last year of this gurú's life the Punjab was visited, on Akbar's invitation, by several Jesuit fathers from Goa, who were received with great favour. To them the emperor gave a site for a church in the city of Lahore, and the church was built at his expense. In 1581 Ram Das was succeeded by his son Arjun Mal, a man of note. In the middle of his father's tank at Amritsar he built the temple, which was called at first Hari Mandar, and afterwards Darbár Sahib, the name by which it is now known. The town which began to rise round the tank and temple was made the headquarters of the Sikhs. Arjun gave further coherence to the body of his followers by levying a regular tax in place of the free and varied offerings they used to give; and he was the compiler of the sacred book called the Adi Granth, the materials for which he had Akbar lived much in the received unarranged from his father. Punjab. In 1586 he directed a campaign against the Afghans of the Peshawar valley, which was attended with no important results except the death of his able minister Bir Bal. In the next year he conquered Kashmir. On his visit to this new acquisition he was

Har

accompanied by one of the Portuguese Jesuits, Jerome Xavier (nephew of the celebrated Francis), who was a special friend of the emperor and was with him at the time of his death at Agra in 1605. Arjun's power and prosperity lasted only during Akbar's lifetime. Jahangir was equally favourable to the Christian missionaries; but the Sikh gurú incurred his displeasure. Believed to be a partisan of the emperor's rebellious son Khusrú, Arjun was imprisoned in 1606 and died soon after. His successor, Har Govind. Govind, was only twelve years of age at the time of Arjun's death, and as he grew up his relation to the Sikhs became that of commander more than gurú. The promulgation of the Granth for instruction of the people had made a way for this change in the character of the leadership. The work of the teacher was now in great measure transferred to the guardians of the sacred volume, who read it in the ears of the people. The gurú thenceforth was the organizing head more than the religious guide. As a young man Har Govind accompanied the emperor to Kashmir. Jahangir, on his way back from this favourite summer resort, died at Rájaori in 1627, and was buried at Sháh-dera on the Rávi, opposite Lahore. His widow, Núr Jahán, erected a beautiful monunient over him, and was herself buried at the same place.

""

or

The reign of Shah Jahán (1627-1658) added much to the prosperity of the Punjab. The emperor's large views found a fitting agent in Ali Mardán Khán, his minister and director of works. Under his orders the canal from the Rávi near the foot of the hills to Lahore was made, and the Jumna Canal, which had been constructed in the 14th century by Firóz Sháh, was restored and improved. Ali Mardán Khán also built the magnificent "saráis rest-houses for travellers on the high road to Kashmir, and other works of utility in the Punjab. In the contests between the two sons of Shah Jahan the Punjab favoured the elder, Dara Shikó, whose intelligent interest in the welfare of the country, joined to literary tastes and liberal views, commended him to all classes of the people. His name is preserved in the town of Shikó-púra, 18 miles west of Lahore, Dara-nagar, and other places. The present military station of Lahore bears the name of Dara's religious instructor, Mián Mír, near whose tomb, erected by his royal pupil, the British cantonment is built.

Har Govind, the sixth Sikh gurú, died in 1645. Har Rái, who succeeded him, gave his support to Dara Shikó. Dara was not successful in maintaining his rights against his younger brother Alamgir (called Aurangzíb), who succeeded his father in 1658. Bernier, who was visiting India at this time, was a companion of the elder brother when in misfortune and of the younger when in power. Like his three predecessors, Aurangzib was fond of visiting Kashmir, and his journey through the Punjab on one of these occasions (1663-64) furnishes one of the most lively pictures of Bernier's Indian experiences. Har Rái died in 1661, and his successor, Har Kishan, a boy, held the nominal leadership of the Sikhs only three years, being followed in 1664 by Tegh Bahadur, a son of Har Govind. When, on his return to the Punjab from a visit to Bengal, he was thought to be exercising authority inconsistent with loyalty to the emperor, he was put to death by Aurangzib in 1675. This roused the Sikhs to greater zeal in the Govind adoption of a military constitution. The next gurú, Govind Rái, son of Tegh Bahadur, after passing some years in retirement and study, came forth a vigorous and enthusiastic leader, with high aims. He set himself to the task of organizing the Sikhs of the Punjab, now becoming formidable from their number, their physique, and their warlike propensities. The first adherents of Nának, the founder of the sect, had been mostly Játs and Khattris. Many were men of great stature and powerful frame. As Sikhs they acquired a distinctive appearance by giving up the Hindu practice of shaving the head and face. They were forbidden the uso of tobacco; and their discipline in other things prepared them for being indeed the soldiers they looked. Govind Rái adopted the designation "Singh" (lion), and this became the distinctive addition to the names of all Sikhs. He called the whole body the "khalsa" or free, and he devised a rite of initiation called the "pahal." He compiled a supplement to the Granth, containing instruction suited to the altered condition of the Sikh people. After the death of Aurangzib in 1707 he accepted the invitation of Bahadur Shah to join him in a campaign against the Mahrattás. At Nadér, on the Godávari, he was murdered in 1708. His principal associate, Banda, led the Sikhs back to the Punjab and turned his armis against the Government. After a long series of fights with the Mogul's troops, during the reigns of Bahadur Shah and Farrukh Siyar, Banda was at length taken in 1716 and put to death. Mohammed Shah was on the throne of Delhi, much occupied in contests with the Mahrattás, when Nádir Sháh invaded India. Afghan Nadir's march through the Punjab in the beginning of 1739 met invasion, with no great opposition; but the Sikhs kept up a system of desultory plunder both of the invaders and of the people fleeing from them. Lahore submitted and was spared; and it escaped again, on Nádir's return, after the defeat of Mohammed Shah at Karnal and the massacre at Delhi, by having a large sum of money ready to meet the expected demand. The Punjab offered no more

Persian

and

| effective resistance to the invasion in 1747 of Ahmad Shah
Abdáli, who kept possession of Afghanistan after Nádir's death.
He began by claiming the revenues of the parts of the Punjab and
Sind which had been ceded to Nádir. On his third invasion
(1752) he obtained possession of Lahore and Múltán. The king
of Delhi was now also an Ahmad Sháh, and the invader was, for
distinction, called in India Ahmad Khán Afghán. His son Timúr,
whom he made governor of Lahore, was driven out by the Mahrattás.
Ahmad found frequent visits to the Punjab necessary, and only
after the total defeat of the Mahrattás at Panipat in 1761 did he
retire finally to Cabul.

For a time the Sikhs seemed to have the prospect of holding the Period
Punjab for themselves. Their number and power had greatly of inde-
increased. They had grouped themselves in associations of kindred pendence.
and neighbourhood called "misls," with distinctive names. Power-
ful members of certain of these clans, representing the aristocracy of
the Sikh families, acquired the chiefship of large tracts of country
on both sides of the Sutlej, some of which became nearly independ-
ent states. Then there were certain members of the Sikh con-
federation, not enrolling themselves in any clan nor owning any
master, who assumed the rôle of religious enthusiasts and warriors,
and the name "Akáli or immortal. They were the gházis of
Sikhism. They dressed in blue and wore a high-pointed turban on
which they carried several chakras of different sizes, their own
special weapon. The chakr or chakra is a thin knife-edged ring of
flat steel, a severe missile in skilled hands, but not much used. The
Sikhs south of the Sutlej enlarged their possessions and made
marauding excursions across the Jumna and the Ganges even as
far as to Rohilkand. The capital was held by three leading Sikh
chiefs, when, in 1797 and the following year, Zamán Sháh, grand-
son of Ahmad, brought an army with the view of recovering the
Punjab, but was recalled both times by troubles at home. He
secured Lahore without opposition, and on leaving in 1798 he
made it over to a young Sikh who had attracted his attention and
done him good service. This was Ranjit Singh, son of Maha Singh, Ranjit
a Ját Sikh who had risen to considerable power, and who died Singh.
in 1792. The young ruler of Lahore was soon to make himself
master of the whole Punjab, while heavy misfortune was awaiting
Zamán Sháh himself, who was to find shelter in the Punjab. The
dethroned and blinded king was met in 1808 at Ráwal Pindí by
Mountstuart Elphinstone when returning from his mission to Sháh
Shujá at Peshawar. When Ranjit Singh was beginning his career
at Lahore the English adventurer George Thomas was trying,
with the army he had raised, to carve out a little principality for
himself in the Sikh states south of the Sutlej. Ranjit was a man
of strong will and immense energy, of no education but of great
acuteness in acquiring the knowledge that would be of use to him.
He soon began to bring all the separate bodies of Sikhs under his
control, and to acquire authority over others besides the Sikhs.
When he endeavoured to include the Sikh states south of the
Sutlej within his jurisdiction, the heads of these states-chiefs of
Sirhind and Malwa, as they were called-sought and obtained in
1808 the protection of the British, whose territories had now
extended to their neighbourhood. The English were at this time
desirous of alliance with Lahore as well as with Cabul, for protec-
tion against supposed French designs on India. A British envoy,
Mr Charles Metcalfe, was received by Ranjít at Kasúr in 1809 and
the alliance was formed. Ranjit steadily strengthened himself and
extended his dominions. In 1809 he obtained possession of Kángra,
which the Nepalese were besieging. In 1813 he acquired the fort
of Attock on the other side of the Punjab; and the same year he
obtained from Shah Shujá, now in his turn a refugee in Lahore,
what he coveted as much as territory, the celebrated Koh-i-núr
diamond, which had been carried off by Nádir Sháh from Delhi.
In 1818, after some failures in previous years, he captured Múltán.
Kashmir, which had successfully opposed him several times, was
annexed the following year, and likewise the southern part of
the country between the Indus and the hills. The Peshawar
valley he succeeded in adding four years later, but he found it best
to leave an Afghan governor in charge of that troublesome district.
These trans-Indus and other outlying tracts were left very much
to themselves, and only received a military visit when revenue was
wanted. Peshawar was never really ruled till General Avitabile
was sent there in later years. When he was gradually raising his
large and powerful army Ranjit received into his service certain
French and other officers, who drilled his troops and greatly
improved his artillery. He valued these European officers highly,
and exerted himself much to retain them. One of them, M.
Allard, used to say that, if it was sometimes difficult to get into
Ranjit's service, it was more difficult to get out of it.
relied on these foreigners for military and sometimes also for
administrative services, he drew around him a body of native
ministers of great ability, of whom the brothers Guláb Singh
and Dhian Singh of Jammu were the most influential. (They had
another brother, Suchét Singh, less prominent and less at court.)
Ranjit maintained friendly relations with the English Government
till his death. This was of much importance when, immediately

Whilst he

after his death in 1839, the British were putting Shah Shujá back on the throne of Cabul. Ranjit was succeeded by his eldest son Kharrak Singh. He left two reputed sons, Shír Singh and Dhalíp Singh, and two adopted sons, Kashmira Singh and Peshaura Singh, named from expeditions on which Ranjit was engaged at the time Years of they were taken into his family. When Kharrak Singh made Cheit disorder. Singh his chief minister in place of the Jammú brothers, Dhián Singh killed the new minister. And now for a time the history of the Punjab became a history of intrigues and deeds of violence, and of contests for power which, when gained, could not be kept. Kharrak Singh's successor, Nau Nihál Singh, was killed by the fall of a beam from the Roshnai gateway of the Huzuri Bagh at Lahore as he was returning from the deceased king's funeral. Shir Singh | succeeded, a man addicted, like Ranjít, to intemperance, and he was His son soon put out of the way by Ajit Singh Sindhanwala. Partáb Singh was murdered by Lena Singh Majithia. Ranjit's adopted sons, Peshaura and Kashmara Singh, were also killed. Then came the turn of the ex-minister Dhián Singh, who was slain by the same hand that had put Shír Singh to death, and which now placed the young Dhalip Singh on the throne. Other assassinations accompanied these chief ones. The leading Sindhanwalas were now all murdered, and with the accession of Dhalíp Singh the friends of his mother, the rání, came into power, some of the wise old servants of Ranjit also continuing to hold important offices.

First Sikh

war.

Second
Sikh

war.

Ranjit had left an army of 92,000 infantry, 31,800 cavalry, with
171 garrison guns and 384 field-pieces. It was a force which could
When one after
not be held in the feebler grasp of his successors.

another of those in nominal power had been assassinated and the
treasury plundered, the army, unpaid and unmanageable, demanded
to be led into British territory, and had their way. They crossed
the Sutlej in December 1845. The battles of Mudkí, Firóz-shahr,
Baddúwál, and Aliwál were followed by the rout of the Sikh army
at Sobráon on 10th February 1846, when they were driven back
into the Sutlej with heavy loss, and the British army advanced to
Lahore. Of the Sikh guns 256 fell into the hands of the British
in these actions on the Sutlej. A treaty was made at Lahore on
9th March with the Sikh darbár, the chiefs and ministry who were
to hold the government on behalf of the young mahárájá, Dhalíp
Singh. By this treaty the Jalandar Doáb and the hill district
of Kángra were ceded to the British, also the possessions of the
mahárájá on the left bank of the Sutlej. In addition the British
demanded a money payment of £1,500,000. The services of Guláb
Singh, rájá of Jammú, to the Lahore state, in procuring the restora-
tion of friendly relations with the British, were specially recognized.
His independent sovereignty in such lands as might be made over to
him was granted. The Sikh Government, unable to pay the whole
of the money demand, further ceded, as equivalent for £1,000,000,
the hill country between the Biás and the Indus, including Kashmir
and Hazára. Guláb Singh was prepared to give the amount in place
of which Kashmir was to have become British, and by a separate
treaty with him, 16th March 1846, this was arranged. The pay-
ment was seventy-five lakhs of Nánaksháhí rupees, and Kashmir
was added to Guláb Singh's territory. At the urgent request of
the darbár a British force was left at Lahore for the protection of
To restore order and
the mahárájá and the preservation of peace.
introduce a settled administration a British resident was appointed,
who was to guide and control the council of regency, and assistants
to the resident were stationed in different parts of the country.
Peace was not long preserved. The governor of Múltán, Ďiwán
Mulráj, desired to resign. Two English officers sent by the resident
to take over charge of the fort were murdered, 19th April 1848, and
their escort went over to the diwán. Another of the assistants to
the resident, Lieutenant Herbert Edwardes, then in the Déraját,

west of the Indus, hearing of the attack on the two officers, hastened
to their assistance. On hearing of their fate he collected a force
with which to attack the Múltán army while the insurrection was
yet local. This he did with signal success. But Múltán could
not fall before such means as he possessed. The movement spread,
the operations widened, and the Sikh and English forces were in
the field again. Múltán was taken. The severe battle of Chilian.
wala on 13th January 1849 left the Sikhs as persistent as after the
two terrible days of Firóz-shahr in the previous campaign. And
it needed the crushing defeat of Gujrát, 21st February 1849, like
Sobráon in 1846, to bring the war to a conclusion, and this time
to give the Punjab to England. It was annexed on 2d April 1849.
For the government of the new province, including the Jalandar
British Doáb, previously annexed, and the cis-Sutlej states, a board of
In
administration was appointed consisting of three members.
place of this board a chief commissioner was appointed in 1853,
aided by a judicial commissioner and a financial commissioner.
British troops, European and native, of the regular army were
stationed at the chief cities and other places east of the Indus and
at Peshawar. For the rest of the trans-Indus territory there was
a special body of native troops called the Punjab frontier force,
under the orders of the chief commissioner. During the Mutiny
campaign of 1857 the Punjab, under Sir John Lawrence as chief
commissioner, was able to send important aid to the force engaged in

Under

rule,

the siege of Delhi, while suppressing the disturbances which arose, and meeting the dangers which threatened, within the Punjab itself. In 1858 the Delhi territory, as it was called, west of the Jumna, was transferred from the North-West Provinces to the Punjab. The enlarged province was raised in rank, and on 1st January 1859 the chief commissioner became lieutenant-governor. In place of the judicial commissioner a chief court was constituted in 1866. The number of judges, at first two, was increased to three in 1869. The number is now (1885) three permanent and two temporary. The form and manner of government are for the most part like those of other British provinces in India, except that the employment, as in the earlier days, of military officers as well as civilians in the civil administration is continued to the present time.

Soon after the annexation of the Punjab Christian missions were begun in the new province by the Church Missionary Society and the American Presbyterian Board. In connexion with the English society there are twenty-four ordained English missionaries, four medical and two lay missionaries, and ten native clergy. At Delhi there is a mission of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Cambridge University Mission. Also a large number of English ladies are engaged in teaching native ladies, who by the customs of the country are obliged to remain at home. The number of native Christians in the Punjab is nearly 4000. In 1879 a new diocese, that of Lahore, was constituted, embracing the provinces of Punjab and Sind.

Authorities.-D. Ibbetson, Report on the Punjab Census of 1881; L. H. Griffin, Punjaub Chiefs and Rajas of the Punjaub; B. H. Baden Powell, Punjab Products and Punjab Manufactures; A. Cunningham, Ancient Geography of N. India; J. D. Cunningham, History of the Sikhs; H. Elliot, Historians of India (by Dowson); Martin Honigberger, Thirty-five Years in the East; M. Elphinstone, Caubul; Prinsep, History of the Punjab; H. Lawrence, The Adventurer in the Punjab; Bosworth Smith, Life of Lord Lawrence; H. Edwardes, A Year on the Punjab Frontier; C. Hügel, Travels in Kashmir and the Punjab; Victor Jacquemont, Journey in India; George Foster, Journey from Bengal to England; Stanislas Julien, Histoire de la Vie de Hiouen Thsang and Hiouen Thsang, Mémoire sur les Contrées Occidentales; F. Bernier, Voyages; G. St P. Lawrence, Reminiscences of Forty-five Years in India; D'Anville, Antiquité Géographique de l'Inde; V. de St Martin, Géographie du Véda; Lassen, Pentapotamia Indica; R. Clark, Thirty Years of Missionary Work in the Punjab; Calcutta Review, vols. i. and .; Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal; Punjab Notes and Queries, (R. M'L*.) &c. PUPPETS. See MARIONETTES.

PURCELL, HENRY (1658-1695), English musical composer, was born in 1658 in St Ann's Lane, Old Pye Street, Westminster. His father, Henry Purcell, was a gentleman of the chapel-royal, and in that capacity sang at the coronation of Charles II. After his father's death in 1664 the boy was placed under the guardianship of his uncle, Thomas Purcell, a man of extraordinary probity and kindness. Through the interest of this affectionate guardian, who was himself a gentleman of His Majesty's chapel, Henry was admitted to the chapel-royal as a chorister, and studied first under Captain Henry Cooke, "master of the children," and afterwards under Pelham Humfrey. He is said to have composed well at nine years old; but the earliest work that can be certainly written identified as his is an ode for the king's birthday, in 1670. After Humfrey's early death in 1674 he continued his studies under Dr Blow. In 1676 he was appointed copyist at Westminster Abbey-not organist, as has sometimes been erroneously stated-and in the same year he composed the music to Dryden's Aurenge-Zebe, and Shadwell's Epsom Wells and The Libertine.1 These were followed in 1677 by the music to Mrs Behn's tragedy, Abdelazor, and in 1678 by an overture and masque for Shadwell's new version of Shakespeare's Timon of Athens. The excellence of these compositions is proved by the fact that they contain songs and choruses which never fail to The masque in Timon please, even at the present day. of Athens is a masterpiece, and the chorus "In these "in The Libertine is constantly In 1679 delightful pleasant groves sung with applause by English choral societies. he wrote some songs for Playford's Choice Ayres, Songs, and Dialogues, and also an anthem, the name of which is not known, for the chapel-royal. From a letter written by Thomas Purcell, and still extant, we learn that this anthem was composed for the exceptionally fine voice of the Rev. John Gostling, then at Canterbury, but after

1 The Libertine was suggested by Tirso de Molina's tale, El Burlador de Sevilla, afterwards dramatically treated by Molière and chosen by Da Ponte as the foundation of Mozart's Don Giovanni.