the track. The leading objection to this system was that the rail was liable to be covered with dust. Jessop therefore in 1789 laid down at Loughborough cast-iron edge rails," raised above the ground so as to allow a flanged cast-iron wheel to run on them (fig. 2). This appears to have been the first system of rails laid on cast-iron chairs and on sleepers. The rails were pinned or bolted into the chairs. A wrought-iron rail was patented by Birkenshaw in 1820, as the "fish-belly" rail, similar in form and mode of support to Jessop's rail, but rolled in continuous lengths, embracing a number of spans, with stiffening ledges or flanges on the FIG. 3. The fish-belly rail, 1820-30. and two parallel lines of way were spaced with 6 feet between the inner rails of the ways. This interspace is popularly known as the "six-foot." Railway, the Act provided for working with men and The benefits derived from the use of the tramway or railway for the transport of coal suggested to reflective persons the employment of it for the conveyance of general merchandise and of passengers. For the conveyance of heavy merchandise inland the canals little more than sixty years ago furnished the principal means. Though there were three such water-routes between Liverpool and Manchester, they were sometimes so crowded that cotton took a month to pass from the seaport to the manufacturing towns in the interior; yet the whole of the merchandise passing between Liverpool and Manchester did not average more than 1200 tons a day. The average rate of carriage was 18s. per ton, and the average time of transit on the 50 miles of canal was thirty-six hours. The conveyance of passengers by the improved coach-roads was comparatively rapid, but Stockton it was very costly. The first great movement to mend this and Dar- state of things was the passing of the Act in 1821 for lington the construction of the Stockton and Darlington Railway. Railway. Colliery railways were in evidence to prove the benefits of railway communication by steam-power. The Hetton Railway, for instance, in the neighbourhood of Newcastle, from the colliery to the river Wear, was 7 miles long, and trains of 60 tons net weight were taken over the line at a speed of 4 miles per hour. On the Killingworth Railway an engine and tender weighing 10 tons drew a load of 40 tons at a speed of 6 miles per hour, consuming 50 lb of coal per mile run. Whilst animal-power only was at first relied on for working the Stockton and Darlington The Monklands Railway in Scotland, opened in 1826, Earliest was the first to follow the example of the Stockton and lines. Darlington line, and several other small lines-including the Canterbury and Whitstable, worked partly by fixed engines and partly by locomotives-quickly adopted steamtraction. But the inauguration of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1829, made the first great impression on the national mind that a revolution in the modes of travelling had really taken place. In 1838 a line was opened between London and Birmingham, and the first train accomplished the whole distance-112 miles at an average speed of over 20 miles per hour. The London and Greenwich, the London and Southampand Exeter, Eastern Counties, Manchester and Leeds, ton, the Great Western, Birmingham and Derby, Bristol Grand Junction, Midland Counties, North Midland, SouthEastern, London and Brighton, Manchester and Birmingham, and Edinburgh and Glasgow, together with many small Bills, were all passed within four years from the time of the passing of the London and Birmingham Bill. Thus in the course of four or five years the foundations were laid of most of the existing trunk lines of railway in Great Britain. The original Liverpool and Manchester line, 30 miles in length, now forms part of a network of lines, the property of one company, nearly 1800 miles in extent, representing a capital invested in railway works and plant of £100,000,000. rail. of much consideration. The fish-belly form of wrought- FIG. 4.-The flatbottomed rail, Early locomo Lives. face level cross balks of timber, one on each side of the pilehead on which they were shouldered. Longitudinal balks, 15 feet long, were laid on the cross balks. The longitudinals were covered with oak or elm planking screwed down to the surface. When the ballast was packed under the longitudinal balks, the surface of the oak planks was planed level, and the bridge rails screwed down on them, with felt between. It was supposed that there would be no yielding whatever, but a very short time demonstrated that the piles formed a series of solid resistances, while the balks between sprang, and it was found necessary to cut away the piles. Transoms were then framed into the longitudinals and secured by strap-bolts, and the whole resembled a long ladder laid on the ground. Eight different sections of rails were tried in succession; one section measured 1 inches in height by 7 inches in width, weighing 44 b per yard; and the last section 2 inches high by 6 inches wide, weighing 62 b per yard. The screws which held down the rails were counter-sunk beneath the wheel-flanges, and nut-headed on the other side (see fig. 6). In consequence of the want of depth in the rails, they bent longitudinally under the wheels, and the horizontal flanges curled I headed up at the sides, while the holes Fig. 6.Bridge rail on through them bent into angles. One Great Western Railway. remedy tried was to cross-board the longitudinal timbers on the surface, and thus the fibre was made less yielding. The double-headed rail (fig. 7) was originated by Joseph Locke, and was first laid on the Grand Junction Railway. It also weighed 62 tb per yard. The two tables were equal; the rail was more easily rolled than others, and, being reversible, it was in fact two rails in one. But as it was laid in cast-iron chairs the lower table was exposed to FIG. 7.-The damage under the hammering of the traffic; and doublemany engineers were led to make the lower table of smaller size, as in fig. 8, merely as a support, not as a surface to be used by the wheels. This rail, which acquired the title of "bull-headed," was, like the flat-foot and bridge rails, used as a prop supported on its base. There was a waste of metal in these early rails, both flat-foot and double-headed, owing to the excessive thickness of the vertical web, which has been corrected in recent designs. It was found, naturally, that rails would not rest in their chairs at the joints, but were loosened and bruised at the ends by the blows of the traffic. The fish-joint was therefore devised in 1847 by Mr W. Bridges Adams, the intention being by "fishing" the joints to convert the rails into continuous beams. In the original design two chairs were placed, one under each rail, a few inches apart, as in fig. 9. The joint was thus suspended between the two chairs, and two keys of iron, called "fishes," fitting the side channels of the rails, were driven in on each side between the chairs and the rails. In subsequent modifications the fishes were, and they continue to be, bolted to and through the rails, the sleepers being placed further apart, and the joint suspended between them. FIG. 9.-The original fish-joint, by W. Bridges Adams. chester line but for the invention and construction of the first high-speed locomotive of the standard modern type. Robert Stephenson's engine, the " "Rocket," was made under competition for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and it gained the prize for lightness, power, and speed awarded by the directors. The two steam-cylinders of the "Rocket" were 8 inches in diameter, with 16 inches of stroke, and the driving-wheels were 4 feet 8 inches in diameter. The engine weighed 4 tons 5 cwt., the tender following it 3 tons 4 cwt., and two loaded carriages drawn by it on the trial 9 tons 11 cwt.: thus the weight drawn was 12 tons 15 cwt., and the gross total 17 tons. The pressure of steam in the boiler was 50 b per square inch. An average speed of 14 miles per hour was attained, the greatest velocity being 29 miles per hour; and the boiler evaporated 18 cubic feet, or 114 gallons, of water per hour. The "Rocket" possessed the three elements of efficiency of the modern locomotive, the internal watersurrounded fire-box and the multitubular flue in the boiler, or a number of small tubes in place of one large tube; the blast-pipe, by which the waste steam of the engine was exhausted up the chimney; and the direct connexion of the two steam-cylinders, one on each side of the engine, with the driving or propelling wheels, on one axle. Tho subdivision of the single large flue, up to that time in general use in locomotives, into a number of small tubes greatly accelerated the generation of steam without adding to the size or weight of the boiler. But the evaporating tubes would have been of little avail practically had they not been supplemented by the blast-pipe, which, by ejecting the steam from the engine after it had done its work in the cylinder straight up the chimney, excited a strong draught through the boiler and caused a brisk and rapid combustion of fuel and generation of heat. The heat was absorbed with proportional rapidity through the newly applied heating tubes. The blast-pipe, thus applied, in conjunction with the multitubular flue, vastly improved the capacity and usefulness of the locomotive. And, taking into account the direct connexion of the steam-cylinder with one axle and pair of wheels, the improvements were tantamount to a new and original machine. The "Rocket" subsequently drew an average gross load of 40 tons behind the tender at a speed of 13.3 miles per hour. The old Killingworth engine, one of the earlier type of locomotives constructed by George Stephenson, weighing with its tender 10 tons, could only work at a maximum of 6 miles per hour with 50 tons. I FIG. 8. The bullheaded rail (62 Ib per yard). In the employment of steam-power for traction on railways rapid progress was made in response to the demand For many years engines belonged to two general classes. In one class there were six wheels, of which one pair was placed behind the boiler, typified in the engines of the day made by Robert Stephenson; in the other class there were but four wheels, placed under the barrel of the boiler, leaving the fire-box overhung, typified in the engines made by Bury for the London and Birmingham Railway. Experience demonstrated the disadvantage of an overhanging mass, with a very limited wheel-base, in the four-wheeled engine running at high speed; and now it is the general XX. Length of lines open. practice to apply six wheels at least to all ordinary loco- | structed by Robert Stephenson and Co. as an article of Country. STATISTICS. Double Line or Single Line. Total. Total (say £785,000,000).... £784,921,312 100.0 "" In 1857 the ordinary stock was 57 per cent., as against 37 4 per cent. in 1883; and the guaranteed and preferential stock together were but one-third of the ordinary share capital, while in 1883 they equalled it. The English railway system, so far as capital is concerned, has become adjusted to the rule of having rather less than 40 per cent. of the capital in "open stock." In 1845-46 the dividends of railways appear to have reached a maximum. The precipitate influx of new lines during the four years from 1846 to 1850, contests before parliament, competition in various forms, and average proportion of net receipts in 1849 to 2.83 per cent. of the other causes then came in to depress dividends, and reduced the total capital and loans raised at that time. In 1857 the percentage of net receipts had risen again to 4.06 per cent. of the total capital and loans; and notwithstanding the accumulation of preference capital and loans, both taking precedence of ordinary capital, the available dividend on the latter increased from 1.88 per cent. to 3.6 per cent. Since that time the average dividend paid on ordinary capital has maintained its level at least, and it amounted for 1883 to 4.68 per cent. The average cost mile per at the end of 1883, calculated on the amount of capital raised, with that for 1857 added for comparison, was as follows (Table II.): open England and Wales 13,215 650,945,834 £49,260 £39,270 2,964 28,230 2,502 15,660 98,531,315 33,240 Length of Railways in the United Kingdom.—The length of rail- per- Cost England and Wales Total. 46 18,681 The railways here represented were owned by 281 companies (206 in England and Wales, 31 in Scotland, and 44 in Ireland). But the whole property is worked by 123 companies.1 The longest mileage of railway worked by one company is that of the Great Western Railway, which at the end of 1883 was 2268 miles. Next to this ranks the London and North-Western (1793), then the North-Eastern (1534), the Midland (1381), the NorthBritish (1006), and the Caledonian (877). The three longest mileages in Ireland owned each by one company are those of the Great Northern (503), the Great Southern and Western (478), and the Midland Great Western (425). The four-largest English companies, taken together, work nearly 7000 miles of railway,- -more than half of the whole length of railways in England and Wales. The two leading lines in Scotland, taken together, work nearly 1900, or two-thirds of the whole length of railways in Scotland. In 1 It would appear that less progress has been made in Ireland than in Great Britain in amalgamation and concentration of management. per Railway, 13 miles long, has the honour of standing at the foot of the list, having cost £6474 per mile. Of the Scottish lines the Caledonian system stands at the head of the list, costing £45,500 per mile. The North British system cost £33,000 per mile. At the foot of the list stood the original East of Fife line, 7 miles long, with a cost of £4351 per mile. But the cheapest lines of considerable length are the Forth and Clyde line, costing £5525 per mile, and the Peebles line, costing £5545 per mile. Both these lines have been taken into the North British system. In Ireland the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, 8 miles long, a suburban railway, cost £53,000 per mile. The original Limerick and Foynes line, costing £5282 per mile, is probably the cheapest piece of railway in the United Kingdom. The proportions of expenditure on capital account cannot in the absence of data be exactly determined. The following may be accepted as an approximate analysis of the average cost of the railways, as it stood in 1871 :— Law and parliamentary expenses Land and compensation Works of construction and stations complete Interest on stock, discounts, bonuses, dividends from capital, contingencies, &c. Per Per mile. cent. £2,000 or 5 London, Brighton, and South Coast 403 410 2817 2960 7,078 9,895 24.1 24.5 11,957 14,917 24.3 14.2 1577 4508 34,794 39,302 24-9 17.3 Manchester, Sheffield, and Lin 3,000, 8 From this estimate it would appear that the net cost of construction and equipment was £21,000 per mile, or about 58 per cent. Cost of of the entire cost. The capital cost of the working stock is given working by the London and North-Western Railway Company. Excluding stock. a considerable number of engines and carrying stock which had been constructed as duplicate stock-charged to revenue, no doubt -at 31st December 1884 the quantities and costs were as follows: It is to be explained with reference to these low rates of cost that the original cost of the early working stock stands unaltered in the books of the company, whilst the whole of the original working stock has been replaced at the charge of revenue by engines and vehicles of modern design and larger capacity. Divided by the number of miles (1793) open at 31st December 1884, the total charge for working stock is at the rate of £4680 per mile open. For new working stock manufactured by the same company during the eighteen months ending 31st December 1884 the following average sums were charged to capital : Rolling Working or Rolling Stock.-The working or rolling stock of stock. railways consists of locomotives with their tenders, passenger carriages, horse-boxes, carriage trucks, travelling post-offices with their tenders and vans, goods waggons, covered goods waggons, cattle trucks, coke and coal waggons, timber trucks, ballast waggons, and goods brake vans. Table III. (below) shows that in England and Wales there is nearly one locomotive per mile of line open, or for the United Kingdom three engines for every 4 miles. The greatest waggon stock per mile open is to be found in Scotland nearly thirty-one per mile. The proportions of vehicles for traffic of all classes for each locomotive averaged at the end of the year 1883 :England and Wales. .31-1 vehicles per engine. Scotland... .51.7 Ireland ..24.6 IRELAND. Midland Great Western Great Southern and Western Great Northern 12,434 13,215 26-2 42-1 2086 17,384 19,450 26 5 25-3 2495 20,223 22,718 27-3 46.0 1381 1629 3856 61,532 65,388 40.1 47.3 1534 1462 2739 76,369 79,108 54 1 51.6 Here the number of vehicles varies from 5 per engine on the Metropolitan Railway, 7 on the District Railway, and 117 on the North London Railway-all of these specially passenger lines of dense traffic-to 54 per engine on the North-Eastern Railway, 59 on the North British Railway, and 65 on the Caledonian Railway-all these being specially lines of mineral traffic. Train Miles Run, 1883.-The number of miles run by passenger Train and goods and mineral trains, and the number run by mixed trains, miles are as follows (Table V.) :— The mixed-train miles constitute just 1 per cent. of the total number, and the mileages run by passenger and goods trains are nearly equal. On an average each mile of way was traversed forty times a day. Taking the means of the numbers of engines for the end of 1882 and the end of 1883 as the average number during the year, the train miles run per locomotive are as follows (Table VI.):Average Number Train Miles per of Engines. Engine. 11,996 1883. England and Wales. Total 18,863 1,678 18,361 An engine when actually on duty may accomplish 120 train miles Working Stock at the end of the Year 1883. Total Passenger-Train Stock. run. Country. per day, which would make upwards of 40,000 per annum. But at any moment half the engines may be taken as in reserve or under repair, which reduces the average performance per engine of the whole stock to some 20,000 miles per year, and the circumstances of many lines do not admit of such high averages of mileage run. Taking the twenty-one leading lines in detail, following the selection already made to show the quantities of working stock, the number of train miles run on the different lines in 1883 is shown in Table VII. as follows: small goods-train mileage, is partly explained by the fact that this company had 141 duplicate locomotives in 1883. Engines run many miles unavoidably "empty," that is, without a train, the proportion of the empty or unprofitable mileage depending on the traffic and the nature of the line. A line with locally heavy gradients must have "assistant" or "pilot" engines in readiness to assist the trains up the inclines, and such engines usually have to return empty to the depôt; and in cases of special trains empty engines are run to or from the train, as the case may happen. Engines, especially assistant engines, may have to stand "in steam" or with the steam up and the fire in good order, in readiness to act when required. Some railway companies register the whole time the engines are in steam, also the assistant, ballasting, and empty mileage run, besides the time on active duty and the train miles run. The nature of the duty of goods engines, which is various, is also distinguished, so as, in short, to make a complete record of the work done. Thus for the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway Table VIII. (see above) gives the duties performed by the engines during the second half-years of 1857 and 1883. The times of engines assisting and running empty are included in the hours in steam with trains,-passenger and goods respectively. There were about 170 engines employed in shunting and marshalling trains. The relative percentages of the hours the engines were in steam and of miles run on different duties in the second half-year of 1883 are given in Table IX. :— SCOTLAND. Glasgow and South-Western North British.. Caledonian IRELAND. Midland Great Western 425 2,230,838 2,294,680 4,525,518 15,880 5,032,790 6,428,496 11,461,286 20,360 5,232,096 6,617,610 11,849,703 17,170 100 1,104,971 682,651 1,787,622 17,880 160 1,678,691 1,164,993 2,843,684 17,780 127 1,851,768 783,148 2,634,916 20,750 The proportion of extra engine mileage to the work done in hauling goods, minerals, and passengers varies very much on dif ferent systems, according to the nature of the traffic, for by far the greater part of it arises in connexion with goods and minerals, which itself is a very varying quantity. The train mile, therefore, that is, the revenue-producing train mile-though it is the simplest and handiest unit of performance, is not an absolute measure of work done. The shunting or marshalling of trains is an item not indicated by train mileage, and yet it is hard work and occupies as many hours in steam as the train mileage. Again, the fuel consumed, reckoned only on the train mileage run, amounts to 53 lb per mile run; but, reckoned on the total mileage run by engines, in which the extra mileage, whether ballasting, shunting, or assist ing, is hard work, it amounts only to 41 tb per mile run. On the London and North-Western Railway in 1874 the total shunting time was 613,472 hours of one engine-about the same as on the Sheffield line in 1883-and on this work 171 engines were constantly employed, marshalling and classifying the trains in the sidings. A like number, so employed on the Sheffield line, amount to one-third of the total locomotive stock. Traffic.-Before the establishment of the railway from twenty Passto thirty coaches ran daily between Manchester and Liverpool, enger whereas the railway carried 700,000 passengers during its first traffic. eighteen months. Wherever railways were made the carriage of passengers was found to be one of the most remunerative sources of traffic. Nearly fifty years ago Porter, in his Progress of the Nation (1836), estimated that in Great Britain 82,000 persons daily, or 30,000,000 per annum, travelled by coach an average distance of about 12 miles each, at an average cost of 5s. for each passenger, or 5d. per mile, whereas in 1881 upwards of 600,000,000 passengers travelled by railway at a cost, taking averages, of 101d. each, which at the average rate of say ltd. per mile travelled would represent an average length of 8 miles, at one-fourth of the cost and in one-third of the time required by coach. 505 431 95,337 With ballast trains Shunting 49,093 Standing.. 28,842 246,674 376,576 19,746 621,000 421,430 1,685,426 2,343,689 |