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a further political allusion (No. 9). It is very skilfully arranged
to fit in the awkward space round the window, and is remarkable
for an attempt, not much suited for fresco-painting, to combine
and contrast the three different qualities of light coming from the
moon, the glory round the angel, and the torches of the sentinels.
For room C Raphael designed and partly painted the Incendio del
Borgo (No. 11), a fire in the Borgo or Leonine City, which was
miraculously stopped by Leo IV. appearing and making the sign
of the cross at a window in the Vatican. In the background is
shown the façade of the old basilica of St Peter, not yet destroyed
when this fresco was painted. One group on the left, in the fore-
ground, is remarkable for its vigour and powerful drawing; the
motive is taken from the burning of Troy; a fine nude figure of
Eneas issues from the burning houses bearing on his back the old
Anchises and leading the boy Ascanius by the hand. Some of the
female figures are designed with much grace and dramatic power.
Many studies for this picture exist. This is the last of the stanze
frescos on which Raphael himself worked. Others designed by
him and painted by Giulio Romano, Gianfrancesco Penni, and other
pupils were the Battle of Ostia (No. 12), a very nobly composed
picture, and the Oath of Leo III. before Charlemagne (No. 14).
The other great picture in this room (No. 13), the Coronation of
Charlemagne (a portrait of Francis I. of France), is so very inferior
in composition that it is difficult to believe that Raphael even made
a sketch for it. The enormous fresco of the Defeat of Maxentius
by Constantine (room D, No. 17) was painted by Giulio Romano,
soon after Raphael's death, from a sketch by the latter; it is even
more harsh and disagreeable in colour than most of Giulio Romano's
early frescos. Among the other very inferior frescos in this great
hall are two female figures (Nos. 15 and 16) representing Comitas
and Justitia, painted on the wall in oil colours, very harmonious
and rich in tone; they are usually, though wrongly, attributed to
Raphael himself.
Technical Methods employed in Raphael's Frescos.-Having
made many studies, both nude and draped, for single figures and

FIG. 5.-Heads of Raphael and Perugino from the School of Athens, showing incised lines and "fresco edges."

2

groups, the painter made a small drawing of the whole composition, which was enlarged by his pupils with the help of numbered squares, drawn all over it, to the full size required, on paper or canvas Holes were then pricked along the outlines of the cartoon, and the design pounced through on to an undercoat of dry stucco on the wall, with pounded charcoal and a stiff brush. Over this, 1 See Montagnani, Sala di Costantino, Rome, 1834. Though he was never a good colourist, the great frescos by Giulio Romano in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua, show some improvement as compared with his Roman work.

These three stages were usually distinguished as study, sketch, and cartoon.

early in the morning, a patch of wet stucco was laid, about enough to serve for the day's painting; this of course obliterated the outline on the wall, and the part covered by the patch was again sketched in by freehand, with a point on the wet stucco, so as to be a guide for the outline traced with the brush and the subsequent painting. A line impressed on the wet stucco was easily smoothed out, but a touch of the brush full of pigment sank deeply into the moist stucco, and could not easily be effaced. It will thus be seen that in fresco painting the only use of pouncing the whole design on to the wall was to keep the general positions of the figures right, and was no guide as to the drawing of each separate part. Fig. 5 shows the portrait-heads of himself and Perugino, at the extreme left of the School of Athens; on this are visible many of the impressed sketch-lines, and also part of the "fresco edge" of the patch on which this part is painted. The heads in this figure are less than one day's work. It will be seen that there is no attempt at any accuracy of drawing in the impressed lines. Raphael, especially in his later frescos, worked with wonderful rapidity: three life-sized busts, or half a full-length figure, more than life-size, was a not unusual day's work. In some of the frescos the edges of each day's patch of stucco can easily be traced, especially in the Incendio del Borgo, which has a strong side light. In the Disputa much use was made of tempera in the final touches, but less was used in the subsequent frescos, owing to his increasing mastery of the difficulties of the process.

The paintings in the stanze were only a small part of Raphael's work between 1509 and 1513. To this period belong the Madonna of Foligno (Vatican), painted in 1511 for Sigismondo Conti; it is one of his most beautiful compositions, full of the utmost grace and sweetness of expression, and appears to be wholly the work of his hand. It has suffered much from repainting. Of about the same date are the gem-like Garvagh Madonna (National Gallery, bought for £9000; once in the possession of the Aldobrandini family), the Diademed Virgin of the Louvre, and the Madonna del Pesce at Madrid. The last is a very noble picture, but the design is more pleasing than the colour, which, like other paintings of Raphael's at Madrid, suggests the inferior touch of a pupil; it was executed in 1513 for S. Domenico in Naples. In addition to other easel pictures a number of his finest portraits belong to this period that of Julius II. (Uffizi), of which a good replica or contemporary copy exists in the National Gallery, the so-called Fornarina in the Palazzo Barberini, the Baldassare Castiglione of the Louvre, and the unfinished portrait of Federigo Gonzaga of Mantua.

When Giovanni de' Medici, at the age of thirty-eight, became pope as Leo X., a period of the most glowing splendour and reckless magnificence succeeded the sterner rule of Julius II. Agostino Chigi, the Sienese financier, was the chief of those whose lavish expenditure contributed to enrich Rome with countless works of art. For him Raphael painted, in 1513-14, the very beautiful fresco of the Triumph of Galatea in his new palace by the Tiber bank, the Villa Farnesina, and also made a large series of magnificent designs from Apuleius's romance of Cupid and Psyche, which were carried out by a number of his pupils. These cover the vault and lunettes of a largo loggia (now closed in for protection); in colouring they are mostly harsh and gaudy, as is usually the case with the works of his pupils, a great contrast to the fresco of the Galatea, the greater part of which is certainly the master's own work. For the same patron he painted

3 A very fine ancient copy of this portrait is in the Pitti Palace; certain peculiarities in its execution show it to be by some Venetian painter, as was pointed out to the present writer by Mr Fairfax Murray.

4 Chiefly by Giulio Romano, Gianfrancesco Penni, and Giovanni da Udine; much injury has been done to these frescos by repainting, especially in the coarse blue of the ground.

These and other frescos by his pupils are much disfigured by the disagreeable hot tone of the flesh, very unlike the pearly tone of the

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flesh of Galatea,

6 Dorigny, Psychis et Amoris fabula a Raphaele, &c., Rome, 1693; and Gruner, Fresco Decorations in Italy, London, 1854, pls. 16-18. The group of the Triton and Nymph on the left of the composition was probably executed by Giulio Romano.

(also in 1513) his celebrated Sibyls in S. Maria della Pace, | known about the Madonna di S. Sisto, the glory of the
-figures of exquisite grace, arranged with perfect skill Dresden Gallery; no studies or sketches for it exist. In
in an awkward space. It is not without reason that style it much resembles the Madonna di Foligno; it is
Vasari gives these the highest position among his fresco- less injured by restoration than the latter.
paintings.1 Agostino Chigi also employed Raphael to
build for him a private chapel in S. Maria del Popolo, and
to make a series of cartoons to be executed in mosaic on
the inner dome. The central medallion has a figure of
God among clouds and angel boys, such as Raphael drew
with unrivalled grace (fig. 6), and around are the eight

FIG. 6.-Mosaic of God creating the stars, from the Chigi chapel, in centre of dome, designed by Raphael.

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planets, each with its pagan deity and directing angel.
He has not hampered himself by any of the usual rules
which should apply to the designing of mosaic; they are
simply treated as pictures, with almost deceptive effects
of perspective. The execution of these brilliant mosaics
was carried out by the Venetian Luigi della Pace, whose
signature is introduced on the torch of Cupid in the panel
representing the star Venus (Ludovico della
Pace Veneziano fecit, 1516). These mosaics
are still as perfect and brilliant as if they
were the work of yesterday. Probably in F 1516
the early years of Leo X.'s reign were painted the Madonna
della Seggiola (Pitti), the S. Cecilia at Bologna (not com-
pleted till 1516), the miniature Vision of Ezekiel (Pitti),
and three important pictures at Madrid. The latest of
these, known as Lo Spasimo, from the church at Palermo,
for which it was painted, is one of Raphael's finest com-
positions, representing Christ bearing His Cross. It bears
signs of Giulio Romano's hand in its heavy colouring with
unpleasant purple tones. The Madonna called Della Perla
has much changed from the darkening of the pigments;
in design it recalls Leonardo da Vinci. The small
Madonna della Rosa is the most perfect in colour of all
the master's pictures in the Madrid Gallery, and is usually
rather undervalued; it is a most graceful little picture.
The portrait of Leo X. with Cardinals de' Rossi and de'
Medici, in the Pitti, is one of his finest portrait-pictures,
especially as regards the figure of the pope.5 Little is
1 Thanks to Michelangelo's generous intervention, Raphael was paid
the large sum for that time of 900 gold ducats for this fresco.
2 Gruner, Mosaici in S. Maria del Popolo, Rome, 1839.
3 In accordance with Dante's scheme in the Paradiso.

Among the latest works of Raphael are the large St Michael and the Devil, in the Louvre, signed "Raphael Urbinas pingebat, MDXVIII.," and the very beautiful portrait of the Violin-player, in the Sciarra-Colonna Palace in Rome, also dated 1518; this last bears much resemblance to the painter himself. The British Museum possesses one of Raphael's finest portraits, though only a chalk drawing, that of his friend the painter Timoteo della Vite, a masterpiece of expression and vigour; it is executed in black and red, and is but little inferior in chromatic effect to an oil-painting; it is life-size, and is executed with wonderful skill and evident keen interest in the subject.

4 La Perla, "the pearl" of the Spanish royal collection, was originally painted for Bishop Louis of Canossa; it was sold by Cromwell with the greater part of Charles I.'s collection at Hampton Court. The composition, though not the execution, of this picture belongs to Raphael's early years in Rome; it is very remarkable for its delicacy of touch and high finish.

The magnificent portrait-heads of the Venetian scholars Navagero and Beazzano, now in the Doria Gallery in Rome, are worthy of Raphael at his best, and have for long been attributed to him. There are good contemporary copies at Madrid,

The tapestry cartoons, seven of which are in the South Kensington Museum, were painted by pupils from Raphael's designs. They are part of a set of ten, with scenes from the Acts of the Apostles, intended, when copied in tapestry, to adorn the lower part of the walls of the Sistine chapel. The tapestries themselves, worked at Brussels, are now, after many vicissitudes, hung in a gallery in the Vatican; the set is complete, thus preserving the design of the three lost cartoons. The existing seven, after being cut up into strips for use on the looms, were bought by Rubens for Charles I. The tapestry copies are executed with wonderful skill, in spite of Raphael's having treated the subjects in a purely pictorial way, with little regard to the exigencies of textile work. The designs are reversed, and the colours far more brilliant than those of the cartoons, much gold and silver being introduced. The noble figure of Christ in the Delivery of the Keys to St Peter is in the tapestry much disfigured by the addition of a number of large gold stars all over the drapery, which spoil the simple dignity of the folds. The rich framework round each picture, designed by Raphael's pupils, probably by Penni and Giovanni da Udine, exists in the tapestries and adds greatly to their decorative effect. The cartoons were executed in 1515 and 1516, and the finished tapestries were first exhibited in their place in the Sistine chapel on 26th December 1519,- a very short time for the weaving of such large and elaborate pictures. The three of which the cartoons are lost represent the Martyrdom of St Stephen, the Conversion of St Paul, and St Paul in Prison at Philippi. Probably no pictures are better known or have been more

often

engraved and copied than these seven cartoons.7
The Transfiguration. In 1519 Cardinal Giuliano de'
Medici (afterwards Clement VII.), as bishop of Narbonne,
ordered two altar-pieces for his cathedral, the one by
del Piombo (see SEBASTIANO). That by the latter painter
Raphael, the other by Raphael's Venetian rival Sebastiano
is the noble Resurrection of Lazarus, now in the National
Gallery, in the drawing of which the Venetian received
important aid from Michelangelo. Several studies for
Raphael's picture exist, showing that he at first intended
to paint a Resurrection of Christ as a pendant to Sebas-
tiano's subject, but soon altered his scheme into the Trans-
through the Oxford, Lille, Windsor, and some private
figuration. The eight or nine existing studies are scattered

6 Fortunately they were not sold with the bulk of Charles's collec-
tion, and remained at Hampton Court till a few years ago. See Koch,
Rafael's Tapeten im Vatican, Vienna, 1878, and Müntz, Hist. de la
tapisserie Italienne, Paris, 1880.

7 The name "arazzi" given by Italians to these tapestries is derived from Arras, where they were erroneously thought to have been woven; they were made at Brussels. It is much to be regretted that visitors to the Vatican are no longer allowed to see these priceless examples of textile work.

8 See Morgenstern, Ueber Rafael's Verklärung, Leipsic, 1822, and Justi, Die Verklärung Christi, Leipsic, 1870.

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collections. A great part of the lower group was unfinished at the time of the painter's sudden death in 1520, and a good deal of the heavy colouring of Giulio Romano is visible in it. On the death of Raphael the picture became too precious to send out of Rome, and Cardinal de' Medici contented himself with sending the Resurrection of Lazarus to Narbonne. The Transfiguration was bequeathed by him to the monks of S. Pietro in Montorio, in whose church it remained till it was stolen by Napoleon I. It now hangs in the Vatican Gallery.

preliminary part of the sculptor's art, though there is no evidence
to show that he ever worked on marble. One of these is a letter
written to Michelangelo to warn him that Raphael had been in-
vading his province as a sculptor by modelling a boy, which had
been executed in marble by a pupil, and was a work of much
beauty. Again, after his death his friend Baldassare Castiglione,
in a letter dated 8th May 1523, asks his steward in Rome "if
Giulio Romano still possesses a certain boy in marble by Raphael
and what his lowest price for it would be,"-"s'egli [Giulio Romano]
ha più quel puttino di marmo di mano di Raffaello e per quanto si
daria all' ultimo.' A group in marble of a Dead Boy on his Dolphin
Playfellow, now in
the St Petersburg
Hermitage, has been
erroneously supposed
to be Raphael's "put-
tino," which has also
been identified with
a statuette of a child
till recently at Flor-
ence in the possession
of Signor Molini.5
The statue of Jonah
was executed in
marble by Loren-
zetto, a Florentine
sculptor; and it re-
mained in his studio
for many years after
Raphael's death. The
South Kensington
Museum possesses a
small clay sketch for
this beautiful group,
slightly different
from the marble; it
is probably the ori-
ginal design by the
master's own hand.
The whole feeling of
the group-a beauti-
ful youth seated on
a sea monster - is
purely classical, and
the motive is prob-

Architectural Work.1-Though he designed but few buildings,
Raphael's great repute even in this branch of art is shown by the
fact that Bramante, before his death in March 1514, specially
requested that Raphael should be made his successor as chief archi-
tect of St Peter's. To this most important post he was appointed
by a brief of Leo X., dated 1st August 1514. The progress of St
Peter's was, however, too slow for him to leave much mark on its
design. Another work of Bramante's, completed by Raphael, was
the graceful Cortile di S. Damaso in the Vatican, including the
loggie, which were decorated with stucco-reliefs and paintings of
sacred subjects by his pupils under his own supervision, but only
very partially from his designs.2 The Palazzo dell' Aquila, built
for Giovanni Battista Branconio, and destroyed in the 17th century
during the extension of St Peter's, was one of Raphael's chief works
as an architect. He also designed the little cross church, domed
at the intersection like a miniature St Peter's, called S. Eligio
degli Orefici, which still exists near the Tiber, almost opposite the
Farnesina gardens, a work of but little merit. According to M.
Geymüller, whose valuable work, Raffaello come Architetto, Milan,
1883, has done so much to increase our knowledge of this subject,
the Villa Farnesina of Agostino Chigi, usually attributed to Peruzzi,
was, as well as its palace-like stables, designed by Raphael; but
internal evidence makes this very difficult to believe. It has too
much of the delicate and refined character of the 15th century for
Raphael, whose taste seems to have been strongly inclined to the
more developed classic style, of which Palladio afterwards became
the chief exponent. The Palazzo Vidoni, near S. Andrea della
Valle, also in Rome, is usually attributed to Raphael, but an
original sketch for this in Peruzzi's own hand has recently been
identified among the collection of drawings at Siena; this, how-
ever, is not a certain proof that the design was not Raphael's. M.
Geymüller has, however, shown that the Villa Madama, on the
slopes of Monte Mario above Rome, was really designed by him,
though its actual carrying out, and the unrivalled stucco-reliefs
some antique statue FIG. 7.-Statue of Jonah in the Chigi chapel,
which make its interior one of the most magnificent palaces in the
designed by Raphael, sculptured by Loren-
world, are due to Giulio Romano and Giovanni da Udine, as men-
representing Arion
or Taras on a dol- zetto; heroic size.
tioned in Vasari's life of the latter. The original design for this phin. Being intended for a church it was necessary to give the
villa made by Raphael himself has been discovered by M. Gey-figure a sacred name, and hence the very incongruous title that it
müller. Another architectural work was the little Chigi chapel in
S. Maria del Popolo, built in 1516, for the dome of which the
above-mentioned mosaics were designed (see fig. 6). At the time
of his death he was preparing to build himself a handsome palace
near the church of S. Eligio; the deed for the purchase of its site
was signed by him only a few days before his last short illness.
Though not completed till 1530, the Palazzo Pandolfini at Florence
was also designed by him; it is a dull scholastic building without
any special beauty either in proportion or treatment of the mass;
it is illustrated by Montigny and Famin, Architecture Toscane,
Paris, 1815, pls. 33-36.

A sober criticism of Raphael's architectural works must force one to refuse him a high position in this branch of art. In the church of S. Eligio and the Chigi chapel he is merely a copyist of Bramante, and his more original works show but little power of invention or even mastery of the first principles of architectural design. His details are, however, often delicate and refined (especially in the Palazzo Pandolfini), and he was supremely successful in the decorative treatment of richly ornamented interiors when he did not, as in some of the Vatican stanze, sacrifice the room to the frescos on its walls.

Sculpture.--That Vasari is right in attributing to him the model for the beautiful statue of Jonah in the Chigi chapel (fig. 7) is borne witness to by two important documents, which show that his almost universal talents led him to attempt with success the 1 See Ojetti, Discorso su Raffaello Architetto, Rome, 1883, but more especially Geymuller's work mentioned below, and his Projets Primitifs pour la Bas. de S. Pierre, Paris, 1875-80.

1 See Mariani, La Bibbia nelle Loggie del Vaticano, Rome; Anon., Dipinti nelle Loggie del Vaticano, Rome, 1841; and Gruner, Fresco Decorations, London, 1854, pls. 1-5. Too great a share in the decoration of the loggie is usually given to Raphael; not only the harsh colour but also the feebleness of much of the drawing shows that he can have had but little to do with it.

See Gruner, Fresco Decorations, &c., London, 1854, pls. 6-12, and Raffaelle Santi, Ornati della Villa Madama, &c., Rome, 1875. Two other little known bat very beautiful architectural works, executed under Raphael's influence by his pupils, are the bath-room of Cardinal Bibbiena in the Vatican and the bath-room of Clement VII. in the castle of S. Angelo, both richly decorated with delicate stucco-reliefs and paintings, treated after a classical model.

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received. There is no trace of Raphael's hand in the design of the other statue, an Elijah by Lorenzetto, though it also is ascribed to him by Vasari.

Lesser Arts practised by Raphael.-Like other great artists, Raphael did not disdain to practise the lesser branches of art: a design for a silver perfume-burner with female caryatids is preserved in an engraving by Marco da Ravenna; and he also designed two handsome repoussé salvers for Agostino Chigi, drawings for which are now at Dresden. In designs for tarsia - work and wood-carving he was especially skilful; witness the magnificent doors and shutters of the stanze executed by his pupil Giovanni Barile of Siena.7 The majolica designs attributed to him were by a namesake and relation called Raffaello di Ciarla; and, though many fine dishes and ewers of Urbino and other majolica are decorated with Raphael's designs, they are all taken from pictures or engrav ings, not specially done by him for ceramic purposes. With the unworthy objects, such as the scenery of a temporary theatre; and frivolity of his age Leo X. occasionally wasted Raphael's skill on in 1516 the pope set him to paint in fresco the portrait life-size of a large elephant, the gift of the king of Portugal, after the

4 See note on p. 369, vol. iv., of Milanesi's edition of Vasari, Florence, 1879, To one branch of the sculptor's art, practised under Raphael's supervision, belong the elaborate and delicately executed stucco-reliefs of the loggie and elsewhere. Among these occur many panels with figure-subjects, large in scale and important in composition; those executed during his lifetime are free from the too pictorial character which is an obvious fault in the very magnificent reliefs of the Villa Madama.

5 See Appendix, p. 406, vol. iv., of Milanesi's edition of Vasari; Rembadi, Del putto... di Raffaello, Florence, 1872; Gennarelli, Sopra una Scultura di Rafaello, Florence, 1873. The evidence which would attribute this piece of sculpture to Raphael is almost worthless. See on the St Petersburg group, Guédéonoff, Celer die dem Raphael zugeschr. Marmorgruppe, St Petersburg, 1972. 6 Compare this latter subject on reverses of the beautiful didrachms of Tarentum, c. 800 B.C.

7 The very beautiful and elaborate choir-stalls of the church of S. Pietro de' Casinensi at Perugia, with panels carved in relief, executed in 1535 by Stefano da Bergamo, are mainly adapted from Raphael's designs,

8 Campori, Notizie Stor. d. Maiolica di Ferrara, 3d ed., Pesaro, 1879, pp.

132-133.

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animal was dead. This elephant is also introduced among the | for a church, a large historical fresco, a portrait, or decorstucco reliefs of the Vatican loggie, with the poetaster Barrabal sitting in mock triumph on its back.

Though Raphael himself does not appear to have practised the art of engraving, yet this formed one of the many branches of art which were carried on under his supervision. A large number of his designs were engraved by his pupils Marcantonio Raimondi (see vol. xv. p. 530) and Agostino Veneziano. These valuable engravings are from Raphael's sketches, not from his finished pictures, and in some cases they show important alterations made in the execution of the picture. Raimondi's engraving of the S. Cecilia of Bologna in design is very inferior to that of the actual painting. Several of Raphael's most important compositions are known to us only by these early engravings, e.g., the Massacre of the Innocents (engraved by Raimondi), which is one of his finest works, both for skilful composition and for masterly drawing of the nude. Another magnificent design is the Judgment of Paris, containing a large number of figures; the nude figure of Minerva is a work of especial force and beauty. A standing figure of Lucretia about to stab herself is also one of his most lovely figures. Many of Raphael's studies for Marcantonio's engravings still exist.

Archæology.-As an antiquary Raphael deserves to take the highest rank. His reports to Leo X. in 1518 is an eloquent plea for the preservation of ancient buildings. In 1515 he had been appointed by Leo X. inspector of all excavations in Rome and within 10 miles round, His careful study of the antique, both statues and modes of decoration, is clearly shown in many of his frescos, and especially in the graceful stucco reliefs and painted grotteschi, of which he and his pupils made such skilful use in the decorations of the Vatican loggie, the Villa Madama, and

elsewhere.4

Raphael's Fame. When we consider the immense field over which his labours were spread and the strong personal individuality which appears in all these varied branches of art, together with the almost incredible number of paintings that issued from his studio, it will be seen that he must have laboured with an amount of unflagging industry which has perhaps never been surpassed, and that too in a time and in a city of which the social habits and luxurious splendour certainly threw every possible temptation in the way of steady application and regular work.

Among all the painters of the world none has been so universally popular as Raphael, or has so steadily maintained his pre-eminent reputation throughout the many changes in taste which have taken place in the last three and a half centuries. Apart from his combined merits as a draughtsman, colourist, and master of graceful composition, he owes the constancy of admiration which has been felt for him partly to the wide range of his subjects, but still more to the wonderful varieties of his style. If the authorship of his paintings were unknown, who would guess that the Sposalizio of the Brera, the Madonna del Baldacchino of the Pitti, and the Transfiguration could possibly be the work of one painter? In his earliest pictures he touches the highly spiritual and sacred art of the Perugian Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, while in his latest Roman work he is fully embarked in the pagan spirit of the last development of the Renaissance, already on the brink of the most rapid decline. In the seventeen or eighteen years which composed his short working life he passed through stages of development for which a century would not have seemed too long, while other painters lived through the same changeful time with but little alteration in their manner of work. Perugino, who outlived his wonderful pupil, completed in 1521 Raphael's San Severo fresco in a style differing but little from his paintings executed in the previous century.

In versatility of power Raphael (as a painter) remains almost without a rival; whether painting an altar-piece

1 Under it was inscribed-"Raphael Urbinas quod natura abstulerat arte restituit.

2 On a pedestal is inscribed in Greek-"Better to die than live basely."

3 Published by Visconti, Lettera di Raffaello a Leone X., Rome, 1840; see also Müntz, "Raphaël Archéologue," &c., Gaz. des B. Arts, October and November 1880.

4 See Gruyer, Raphaël et l'Antiquité, Paris, 1864.

ative scenes from classical mythology, he seems to excel equally in each; and the widely different methods of painting in tempera, oil, or fresco are employed by him with apparently equal facility. His range of scale is no less remarkable, varying from a miniature, finished like an illuminated MS., to colossal figures in fresco dashed in with inimitable breadth and vigour.

An additional glory is thrown round his memory by the personal beauty, charm of manner, and deep kindliness of heart which endeared him to all who knew him.5 His sincere modesty was not diminished by his admission as an equal by the princes of the church, the distinguished scholars, and the world-famed men of every class who formed the courts of Julius II. and Leo X. In accordance with the spirit of the age he lived with considerable display and luxury, and was approached with the utmost deference by the ambassadors of foreign princes, whether their master desired a picture, or, as the duke of Ferrara did, sent to consult him on the best cure for smoky chimneys. To his pupils he was as a father, and they were all, as Vasari says, "vinti dalla sua cortesia"; they formed round him a sort of royal retinue, numbering about fifty youths, each talented in some branch of the arts." Giulio Romano and Gianfrancesco Penni, his two favourite pupils, lived with him in the Palazzo di Bramante, a house near St Peter's, where he resided during the greater part of his life in Rome. This fine palace, designed by Bramante, was destroyed in the 17th century at the same time as Raphael's Palazzo dell' Aquila.

his

It is difficult to realize the furor of grief and enthusiasm excited by the master's death on Good Friday 1520, at the age of thirty-seven exactly, after an attack of fever which lasted only ten days. His body was laid out in state in his studio, by the side of the unfinished Transfiguration, and all Rome flocked to the place for a last sight of the "divino pittore." His property amounted to about £30,000; his drawings and MSS. he left to Giulio Romano and Gianfrancesco Penni; his newly bought land to Cardinal Bibbiena, the uncle of the lady to whom he had been betrothed; there were liberal bequests to his servants; and the rest was mostly divided among relatives at Urbino. He desired to be buried in the Pantheon, under the noble dome which he and Bramante had dreamed of rivalling. His body is laid beside an altar, which he endowed with an annual chantry, and on the wall over it is a plain slab, with an inscription written by his friend Cardinal Bembo. Happily his grave has as yet escaped the disfigurement of a pretentious monument such as those erected to Michelangelo, Dante, and other great Italians; it has not, however, remained undisturbed: in 1833 it was opened and the bones examined. In March 1883 a festival was held at Urbino, on the occasion of the 4th centenary of his birth, and on this occasion many interesting articles on Raphael were published, especially one by Geymüller, "Le IVme Centenaire de la Naissance de Raphaël," 1483-1883, in the Gaz. de Lausanne, March 1883.

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Literature.-Comolli, Vita incdita di Raffaello, 1790; Duppa,
Leben und
Life of Raphael, London, 1816; Braun, Raphael
Werke, Wiesbaden, 1819; Fea, Raffaello. ed alcune di lui
1824; Quatremère de Quincy, Vita ed Opere di Raffaello, trans. by
Opere, Rome, 1822; Rehberg, Rafael Sanzio aus Urbino, Munich,
Longhena, Milan, 1829 (a work marred by many inaccuracies);
Rumohr, Ueber Raphael und sein Verhältniss, Berlin, 1831; Rio,
Michelange et Raphael, Paris, 1863; Gruyer, Raphaël et l'Antiquité
5 See the eloquent eulogy of his character at the end of Vasari's Life.
See Minghetti, "Gli Scolari di Raffaello," Nuova Antologia, June
1880.

7 See "Ritrovamento delle ossa di Raffaello," Soc. Virtuosi al Panteone, Rome, 1833; other pamphlets on this were published in the same year by Fea, Falconieri, and Odescalchi.

(Paris, 1864), Les Vierges de Raphael (Paris, 1878), and Raphael, Peintre de Portraits (Paris, 1880); Grimm, Das Leben Raphaels von Urbino, Berlin, 1872 (intended specially to point out the errors of Vasari and Passavant, and not written in a very fair spirit); Gherardi, Della Vita di Raffaello, Urbino, 1874; Springer, Raffael und Michelangelo, Leipsic, 1878; Perkins, Raphael and Michelangelo, Boston, 1878; Dohme, Kunst und Künstler des Mittelalters, Leipsic, 1878 (vol. ii. of this valuable work, with many illustrations, is devoted entirely to Raphael and Michelangelo); Alippi, Il Raffaello, Urbino, 1880; Clément, Michelange et Raphael, 5th ed. (improved), Paris, 1881; Eug. Müntz, Raphaël, sa Vie, son Euvre, &c., Paris, 1881 (this is on the whole the best single work on Raphael, both from its text and its numerous well-chosen illustrations); Passavant, Rafael und sein Vater, Leipsic, 1839-58 (a valuable book, especially for its list of Raphael's works; a new edition translated by Guasti into Italian was published at Florence in 1882, but, though printed so recently, this edition is in no way superior to the French one of Lacroix, Paris, 1860, which, however, is a great advance on the original German text); Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Life and Works of Raphael, London, 1882-85; Eug. Müntz, Les Historiens et les Critiques de Raphael, Paris, 1883 (contains a good bibliography of the subject). The student of Raphael owes a special debt of gratitude for the recent labours of MM. Müntz, Gruyer, and Geymüller. Reproductions of Raphael's Works. From the time of Raimondi downwards no painter's works have been so frequently engraved. The Calcografia Camerale (now called Regia) of Rome possesses an enormous number of copper-plates of his pictures by a great many good (and bad) engravers of this and the last century. Electrotypes of the old coppers are still worked, and are published by the Stamperia at very moderate prices; in the catalogue Nos. 736 to 894 are the works of Raphael, including several books of engravings containing whole sets, such as the Vatican loggie, &c. very complete collection of photographs from these and other engravings is published by Gutbier and Lübke, Kafael's Werke, sämmtliche Tafelbilder und Fresken, Dresden, 1881-82, in three large volumes, divided into classes,-pictures of the Madonna, frescos, stanze of the Vatican, tapestry cartoons, &c. The descriptive text and life of Raphael are by Lübke. The Malcolm, Oxford, British Museum, Lille, Louvre, Dresden, and other collections of Raphael's drawings have mostly been published in photographic facsimile, and an enormous number of illustrated monographs on single pictures exists. Braun's autotypes of the stanze and Farnesina frescos are especially good. (J. H. M.)

A

RAPIN, PAUL DE (1661-1725), sieur of Thoyras, French historian, was the son of Jacques de Rapin, avocat at Castres (Tarn), where he was born on 25th March 1661. He was educated at the Protestant academy of Saumur, and in 1679 he became an advocate, but soon afterwards entered the army. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 and the death of his father, which happened two months afterwards, led him to come to England; but, unable to find employment there, he crossed to Holland and enlisted in the company of French volunteers at Utrecht commanded by Daniel de Rapin, his cousin-german. He accompanied the prince of Orange to England in 1688, and the following year Lord Kingston made him ensign in his regiment, with which he proceeded to Ireland. He took part in the siege of Carrickfergus and the battle of the Boyne, and was shot through the shoulder at the battle of Limerick. Soon afterwards he was promoted captain; but in 1693 he resigned in order to become tutor to the earl of Portland's son. His next change was to return to his family, which he had settled at The Hague, and there he continued some years. But, as he found his family increase, he resolved to retire to a more economical residence, and accordingly removed in 1707 to Wesel, where he commenced his great work L'Histoire d'Angleterre. Though he was of a strong constitution, the seventeen years' application entirely ruined

his health. He died in 1725.

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Railway, is situated on the Byaly Lom, 970 feet above sea-level. It has increased in population during the last fifty years from 3000 to 10,000 inhabitants. In 1810 it was the scene of the defeat of the Turks by the Russians. RASHBA (") stands for three rabbins of various ages and various countries.

1. R. SHIME ON BEN EL'AZAR was a Mishnic teacher of the 2d century.

2. RABBENU SHIMSHON BEN ABRAHAM of Sens wrote commentaries on various Mishnic treatises (see MISHNAH, vol. xvi. p. 506).

3. R. SHELOMOH BEN ABRAHAM (or Ben [Ibn] Addereth) was a disciple of Nachmanides, upon whom his master's mantle had fallen (see RAMBAN). He became chief rabbi of Barcelona. Here so many disciples from the neighbouring provinces flocked to him as to excite emulation among the Jews in the capital of Castile, who thereupon appointed the German Rabbi Asher b. Yeḥiel (Rosh). At the same time religious questions poured in upon him from all Israel, so that it is a marvel how he could go through his mere clerical work.

His works extend over the whole Talmud, although not all of them are printed. But thousands of his Responsa have been printed, while many others lie in MS. at Cambridge (Add. 500). *Of his other works, the enumeration of which would occupy columns, mention can be made only of his explanations of the Agadoth of the Babylonian Talmud, containing polemic against both Christians and Moslems (MS., Univ. Canıb., Add. 1567, 1). On his part in the Maimonidean controversy see Schiller-Szinessy, Catalogue, i. 187 sq. (S. M. S.-S.)

In

RASHBAM. RABBENU SHEMUEL BEN MEIR, Commonly called, from his title and the initials of his own and his father's names, Rashbam, was born at Rameru (Ramerupt near Troyes, in France) about 1080. He was almost the greatest Talmudist of his time, the only two excelling him till 1105 being Rashi and later on his own younger brother, Bible criticism and exegesis, however, he excelled all the Rabbenu Ya'akob, better known as Rabbenu Tham. men of the 11th and 12th centuries, even if we include R. Menahem b. Helbo, R. Yoseph Bekhor Shor, and R. Yoseph Kara of the Franco - Ashkenazic school, and Abraham Ibn 'Ezra of the Sepharadic school. Rashbam was the son of Yokhebed, second daughter of RASHI (2.v.), and of Rabbenu Meir of Rameru (b. Shemuel). He succeeded his grandfather Rashi as head of the Rabbinical college, and probably also of the congregation, of Troyes. Later, however, we meet him at other places, e.g., Caen, Loudun. He died about 1160.

Of his works the following are known. (1) Commentaries on the Bible: (a) his commentary on the Pentateuch, uncritically edited several times (ed. princeps, Berlin, 1705), and critically and most ably for the first time by Rosin of Breslau (1881, 8vo); (b) commentaries on most of the other books of the Bible, the greater part of which are now lost, but the existence of which is in early times fully testified to. Those on Ecclesiastes and Canticles' were published by Dr Jellinek at Leipsic (1855, 8vo); specimens of both books have been translated into English by Dr Ginsburg (Song of Songs, London, 1857, and Coheleth, London, 1861). (2) Commentaries on the Babylonian Talmud; of these we now possess only his supplements on Pesahim (leaves 99b-121b), Baba Bathra (leaves 29a-176b), and Makkoth (leaves 19b sq.; see the so-called Rashi on the Riph, in the Mishnah, iii. 5, catchword ipin Syn). Commentaries on five other treatises are distinctly referred to by old authorities, but Rashi's commentaries so thoroughly eclipsed all those written before and after him that none of them had a chance of surviving, except in the shape of a supplement. (3) Additamenta or Tosaphoth; see Rabbinovicz (varia lectiones), ii.,

1 The present writer cannot share the opinion of those who, because of the Agadic explanations with which that commentary abounds, call Rashbam's authorship in question. Ibn 'Ezra himself, who was sober thinker enough, is compelled in Canticles to resort to the Rabbinic explanation,- -a proceeding and a method in which every modern commentator must take refuge, unless he wishes to explain the book as a merely profane one.

See Berliner Magazin, &c., vii. 186, and Or Zaru'a, in several places (comp. Magazin, ii. p. 100).

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