RAY. The Rays (Batoider) together with the Sharks | tion of the surface-water. Other genera, comprising species of (Selachoidei) form the suborder Plagiostomata of Cartila- smaller size, inhabit different parts of the tropical and subtropical ginous fishes, and are divided into six families, as already

四

to Falborne Hall in Essex. Finally, in 1679, he removed to Black Notley, where he afterwards remained. His life there was quiet and uneventful, but embittered by bodily weakness and chronic sores. He occupied himself in writing books and in keeping up a very wide scientific correspondence, and lived, in spite of his infirmities, to the age of seventy-six, dying on 17th January 1705.

Synopses of Birds and Fishes were mere abridgments of the "Ornithology" and "Ichthyology. laborious compiling and cataloguing; for instance, his Collection Most of Ray's minor works were the outcome of his faculty for of English Proverbs (1670), his Collection of out-of-the-way English Words (1674), his Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages (1693), and his Dictionariolum trilingue, or Nomenclator classicus (1675). The last was written for the use of Willughby's sons, his pupils; it passed through many editions, and is still useful for Ray's first book, the Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam its careful identifications of plants and animals mentioned by nascentium (1660, followed by appendices in 1663 and 1685), was Greek and Latin writers. But Ray's permanent influence and written in conjunction with his "amicissimus et individuus comes," reputation have probably depended most of all upon his two books John Nid. The plants, 626 in number, are enumerated alphabetic- entitled The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Crcaally, but a system of classification differing little from Caspar tion (1691), and Miscellaneous Discourses concerning the Dissolution Bauhin's is sketched at the end of the book; and the notes contain and Changes of the World (1692). The latter includes three many curious references to other parts of natural history. The essays, on "The Primitive Chaos and Creation of the World," stations of the plants are minutely described; and Cambridge "The General Deluge, its Causes and Effects," and "The Dissolustudents still gather some of their rarer plants in the copses or tion of the World and Future Conflagrations.' The germ of these chalk-pits where he found them. The book shows signs of his works was contained in sermons preached long before in Cambridge. indebtedness to Joachim Jung of Hamburg, who had died in 1657 Both books obtained immediate popularity; the former, at least, leaving his writings unpublished; but a MS. copy of some of them was translated into several languages; and to this day their influ was sent to Ray by Hartlieb in 1660. Jung invented or gave ence is apparent. For, as Sir J. Smith says in his biography of precision to many technical terms that Ray and others at once Ray, "this book [The Wisdom of God, &c.] is the basis of all the made use of in their descriptions, and that are now classical; and labours of following divines, who have made the book of nature a his notions of what constitutes a specific distinction and what commentary on the Book of Revelation." In it Ray recites incharacters are valueless as such seem to have been adopted with numerable examples of the perfection of organic mechanism, the little change by Ray. The first two editions of the Catalogus multitude and variety of living creatures, the minuteness and plantarum Anglia (1670, 1677) were likewise arranged alphabetic- usefulness of their parts. Many, if not most, of the familiar ally; but in the Synopsis stirpium Britannicarum (1690, 1696, proofs of purposive adaptation and design in nature were suggested also re-edited by Dillenius 1724, and by Hill 1760) Ray applied by Ray. The structure of the eye, the hollowness of the bones, the scheme of classification which he had by that time elaborated the camel's stomach, the hedgehog's armour, are among the thouin the Methodus and the Historia plantarum. The Methodus plan- sand instances cited by him of immediate creative interpositions. tarum nova (1682) was largely based on the works of Caesalpini But, though his application of natural history to apologetic theoand Jung, and still more on that of Morison of Oxford. The logy has made his reputation peculiarly wide, it must be acknowgreatest merit of this book is the use of the number of cotyledons ledged that none of his scientific discoveries at all equal in value as a basis of classification; though it must be remembered that those of the physiological botanists who immediately preceded him, the difference between the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous and that even in classificatory insight he was surpassed by several embryo was detected by Grew. After dividing plants into flowerless of his contemporaries. and flowering, Ray says, "Floriferas dividemus in Dicotyledones, quarum semina sata binis foliis anomalis, seminalibus dictis, quæ cotyledonorum usum præstant, e terra exeunt, vel in binos saltem lobos dividuntur, quamvis eos supra terram foliorum specie non efferunt; et Monocotyledones, quæ nec folia bina seminalia efferunt nec lobos binos condunt. Hæc divisio ad arbores etiam extendi potest; siquidem Palme et congeneres hoc respectu codem modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo Monocotyledones a reliquis herbis. But a serious blemish was his persistent separation of trees from herbs, a distinction whose falsity had been exposed by Jung and others, but to which Ray tried to give scientific foundation by denying the existence of buds in the latter. At this time he based his classification, like Caesalpini, chiefly upon the fruit, and he distinguished several natural groups, such as the grasses, Labiale, Umbellifera, and Papilionacea. The classification of the Methodus was extended and improved in the Historia plantarum, but was disfigured by a large class of Anomale, to include forms that the other orders did not easily admit, and by the separation of the cereals from other grasses. The first volume of this vast book was published in 1685, the second in the next year, and the third in 1704; it enumerates and describes all the plants known to the author or described by his predecessors, to the number, according to Adanson, of 18,625 species. In the first volume a chapter "De plantis in genere" contains an account of all the anatomical and physiological knowledge of the time regarding plants, with the recent speculations and discoveries of Caesalpini, Grow, Malpighi, and Jung. And Cuvier and Dupetit Thouars, declaring that it was this chapter which gave acceptance and authority to these authors' works, say that the best monument that could be erected to the memory of Ray would be the republication of this part of his work separately." The Stirpium Europaarum extra Britannias nascentium Sylloge (1694) is a much amplified edition of the catalogue of plants collected on his own Continental tour. In the preface to this book he first clearly admitted the doctrine of the sexuality of plants, which, however, he had no share in establishing. Here also begins his long controversy with Rivints, which chiefly turned upon Ray's indefensible separation of ligneous from herbaceous plants, and also upon what he conceived to be he misleading reliance that Rivinus placed on the characters of the corolla. But in the second edition of his Methodus (1703) he followed Rivinus and Tournefort in taking the flower instead of the fruit as his basis of classification: he was no longer

a fructicist but a corollit.

Besides editing his friet Willughby's books, Ray wrote several zoological works of his own, including Synopses of Quadrupeds (1693), that is to say, both ma and reptiles, of Birds, and of Fishes (1713); the last two w lished posthumously, as was also the more important Historia 1.. rum (1710). The History of Insects embodied a great mass lughby's notes, and the

of

Authorities.-Select Remains, Itineraries, and Life, by Dr Derham, edited by George Scott, 1740; notice by Sir J. E. Smith in Ree's Cyclopædia; notice by Cuvier and A. Dupetit Thouars in the Biographic Universelle; all these wero collected under the title Memorials of Ray, and edited (with the addition of a complete catalogue of his works) by Dr Edwin Lankester, Svo (Ray Society), 1846; Correspondence (with Willughby, Martin Lister, Dr Robinson, Petiver, Derham, Sir Hans Sloane, and others), edited by Dr Derham, 1718; Selections, with additions, edited by Lankester Ray Society), 1848. For accounts of Ray's system of classification, see Cuvier, Leçons Hist. 8. Sci. Nat., p. 488; Sprengel, Gesch. d. Botanik, ii. p. 40; also Whewell, Hist. Ind. Sci., iii. p. 332 (ed. 1847), and Wood, art. "Classification" in Ree's Cyclopædia, (D. W. T.)

He

RAYMOND LULLY. See LULLY. RAYMOND OF SABUNDE (Sebonde, Sebeyde, &c.) appears to have been born at Barcelona towards the end of the 14th century. He combined the training of a physician and a theologian, and was professor of theology at Toulouse, seemingly from the year 1430 onwards. published there in 1436 his chief work, Theologia Naturalis, sive liber creaturarum. This book was reprinted pretty frequently during the next two centuries, and has recently been republished at Sulzbach (1852), but without the introduction, which, for some not very intelligible reason, was placed upon the Index by the council of Trent. It was translated into French by Montaigne at the command of his father (see Montaigne, Essais, ii. 12). The six Dialogi de natura hominis are an extract from the larger work made by Raymond himself. Raymond is a scholastic of the period of decline. The chief thought of the Theologia Naturalis is the parallelism between the book of nature and the book of revelation. The second of these two books is more sacred on account of its supernatural character, but a foundation must be laid by the study of the first. Nature culminates in man, who alone of the creatures possesses all the four properties which mark off the different grades of existence (esse, vivere, sentire, intelligere). But individual differences disappear. Everything that we find man himself points forward to a self-existent unity in which in the creatures is present in God without limitation or negation, so that God's being is the universal being of all things. Hence it is true that God created the world out of nothing. Raymond endeavours to deduce the principal dogmas of the church by the natural light in a similar fashion. Man's own advantage and the glory of God are

the latter in its peculiarly-shaped bill, which is vertically enlarged, compressed, and deeply furrowed, as well as in its elongated, wedge-shaped tail. A fine white line, running on each side from the base of the culmen to the eye, is in the adult bird in breeding-apparel (with a few very rare exceptions) a further obvious characteristic. Otherwise the appearance of all these birds may be briefly described in the same words-head, breast, and upper parts generally of a deep glossy black, and the lower parts and tip of the secondaries of a pure white, while the various changes of plumage dependent on age or season are alike in all. In habits the Razorbill closely agrees with the true Guillemots, laying its single egg (which is not, however, subject to the same amazing variety of coloration that is pre-eminently the Guillemot's own) on the ledges of the cliffs to which it repairs in the breedingseason, but it is said then as a rule to occupy higher elevations, and when not breeding to keep further out to sea. On the east side of the Atlantic the Razorbill has its stations on convenient parts of the coast from the North Cape to Britanny, besides several in the Baltic, while in winter it passes much further to the southward, and is sometimes numerous in the Bay of Gibraltar, occasionally entering the Mediterranean but apparently never extending to the eastward of Sicily or Malta. On the west side of the Atlantic it breeds from 70° N. lat. on the eastern shore of Baffin's Bay to Cape Farewell, and again on the coast of America from Labrador and Newfoundland to the Bay of Fundy, while in winter it reaches Long Island. (A.N.) RAZZI, GIANANTONIO. See SODDOMA.

the ultimate rules of conduct, and the coincidence of the | which that presumably extinct species has lost, and from two is maintained on the ground of the joys of knowledge. Knowledge has its natural consummation in the knowledge of God; man's knowledge of God is at the same time the love and gratitude which he, as representative of the creatures and mediator between them and God, continually offers to the divine majesty. The fact that self-love and the love of God are at present often in conflict is traced by Raymond to the fall of the first human pair; and this gives him occasion to deduce the doctrine of the incarnation, almost in the words of Anselm's Cur Deus homo. RAYNAL, GUILLAUME THOMAS FRANÇOIS (1713-1796), was born on 12th April 1713 in the province of Rouergue, and was educated at Pézenas by the Jesuits. He took orders, and, going to Paris, did parish work; but he left the priesthood (being indeed deprived for misconduct) and betaking himself to literature soon became one of the minor members of the philosophe coterie. He did not a little journalism and bookmaking of divers kinds; but his name would be entirely forgotten were it not for the Histoire philosophique et politique des Établissements et du Commerce des Européens dans les Deux Indes. This book is not, and indeed was not in its own day, of any substantive value as a book of reference on its nominal subject; but it exercised considerable influence: it was exceedingly characteristic of the period and society which produced it, and passages of it are still worth reading. The secret of its merits and its faults is to be found in the manner of its composition. Raynal himself wrote but a small part of it, and he took not the slightest pains to make it a homogeneous work. But he borrowed from books and he begged from his own friends all manner of diatribes against superstition and tyranny, often illustrated by lively anecdotes and eloquent tirades. Grimm assigns a full third of the book to Diderot, which is probably an exaggeration, but that Diderot had a great hand in it no judge of style can doubt. It was published in 1772, and brought the author many compliments, even from men like Gibbon, who should | have known better. A new edition in 1780 was even bolder. It was condemned and burned (29th May 1781), and the author had to fly the country. He returned just before the Revolution, but having apparently a natural tendency to opposition he became a strong Royalist. He died on 6th March 1796.

No other work of Raynal's deserves notice here. The best account in English of the Histoire des Indes will be found in Mr John Morley's Diderot, vol. ii. chap. XV.

RAZORBILL or RAZOR-BILLED AUK, known also on many parts of the British coasts as the Marrot, Murre, Scout, Tinker, or Willock-names which it, however, shares with the GUILLEMOT (vol. xi. p. 262), and to some extent with the PUFFIN (see above, p. 101)—a common sea-bird of the Northern Atlantic,1 resorting in vast numbers to certain

stations on rocky cliffs for the purpose of breeding, and, its object being accomplished, returning to deeper waters for the rest of the year. It is the Alca torda of Linnæus 2 and most modern authors, congeneric with the GARE-FOWL (vol. x. p. 78), if not with the true Guillemots, between which two forms it is intermediate-differing from the former in its small size and retaining the power of flight,

1 Schlegel (Mus. des Pays-Bas, Urinatores, p. 14) records an example from Japan; but this must be in error.

It

2 The word Alca is simply the Latinized form of this bird's common Teutonic name, Alk, of which Auk is the English modification. must therefore be held to be the type of the Linnæan genus Alca, though some systematists on indefensible grounds have removed it thence, making it the sole member of a genus named by Leach, after Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, bk. xix. chap. xlix.), Utamania-an extraordinary word, that seems to have originated in some mistake from the no less extraordinary Vuttamaria, given by Belon (Observations, i. c. xi.) as the Cretan name of some diving bird, which certainly

could not have been the present species.

RÉ, ISLE OF, a long, low island 3 miles off the coast of the French department of Charente Inférieure, runs south-east and north-west with a breadth of about 3 miles and a length of 181⁄2 miles. The north-west point (Pointe des Baleines) has a lighthouse of the first class. The Pertuis Breton separates the island from the coast of La Vendée to the north, and the Pertuis d'Antioche from the Isle of Oléron to the south. With a surface of 18,259 acres, the Isle of Ré has 15,370 inhabitants, whose chief source of income is the salt marshes, producing annually 31,500 tons of salt. The island has also a vineyard and corn lands, and boasts of the excellence of its figs, pears, and cream. Apart from the orchards it is now woodless, though once covered with forests. Oysters are successfully cultivated, the annual supply of these molluscs being 35,000,000. The coast facing the Atlantic is rocky and inhospitable, but there are numerous harbours on the landward side. The island seems once to have been united to the continent, with which it is still connected by a line of sunken rocks; its existence is not mentioned before the 8th century. Tradition says that the city of Antioche which still constantly threaten to cut the island in two at on the west coast was destroyed by the Atlantic storms, the isthmus (only 230 feet wide) formed by the gulf called Fier d'Ars. There are two cantons-St Martin and Ars-en-Ré-in the arrondissement of La Rochelle. Martin, with a secure harbour, was fortified by Vauban, and is the depôt for convicts on their way to New Caledonia.

St

READE, CHARLES (1814-1884), holds a high and distinctive place among the English novelists of the third quarter of the 19th century. The son of ar Oxfordshire squire, he was born at Ipsden in 1814, and was educated for the bar. He entered Magdalen College, Oxford, proceeded B.A. in 1835, with a third class in classics, was. elected Vinerian Reader in 1842, and was called to the bar (Lincoln's Inn) in 1843. It was comparatively late in his life that he made hirst appearance as an author, but he showed at once at he had subjected himself to a laborious apprenticp to the study of life and literature.

first of these was in his own opinion the best of his novels, and his own opinion was probably right. He was wrong, however, in his own conception of his powers as a dramatist. At intervals throughout his literary career he sought to gratify his dramatic ambition, hiring a theatre and engaging a company for the representation of his own plays. An example of his persistency was seen in the case of Foul Play. He wrote this in 1869 in combination with Mr Dion Boucicault with a view to stage adaptation. The play was more or less a failure; but he produced another version alone in 1877, under the title of A Scuttled Ship, and the failure was pronounced. His greatest success as a tion of Zola's L'Assommoir, produced in 1879. At his death in 1884 (11th April) Reade left behind him a completed novel, ▲ Perilous Secret, which showed no falling off in the art of weaving a complicated plot and devising thrilling situations.

1

markable curiosities in classification and tabulation. On the

He began as a dramatist, and this his first ambition shaped | A Terrible Temptation (1871), A Simpleton (1873). The and coloured his work to the end. It was his own wish that the word "dramatist" should stand first in the description of his occupations on his tombstone. He was dramatist first and novelist afterwards, not merely chronologically but in his aims as an author, always having an eye to stage-effect in scene and situation as well as in dialogue. Gold, his first play (1850), was but a moderate success. He did not achieve popularity till 1856, when he produced It's Never Too Late to Mend, a novel written with the purpose of reforming abuses in prison discipline and the treatment of criminals. The prosecution of his moral purpose carried him too far for most of his readers; he described prison life with a minuteness and fidelity-dramatist attended his last attempt-Drink-an adaptathe result of laborious studies of blue-books and newspapers and personal inquiries-which become at times tedious and revolting; but the power of the descriptions was undeniable, and the interest of the story, in spite of all overelaboration of painful details, was profound and thrilling. The truth of some of his details was challenged, and the novelist showed himself a pungent controversialist. From first to last he defended himself with vigour and great strength of language against all attempts to rebut his contentions or damage his literary property. It's Never Too Late to Mend was his first great success, but before this he had gained the respect of critics with two shorter novels, Peg Woffington (1852), a close study of life and character behind the scenes, and Christie Johnstone (1853), an equally close study of Scotch fisher folk, an extraordinary tour de force for the son of an English squire, whether we consider the dialect or the skill with which he enters into alien habits of thought. He had also established his position as a dramatist by writing (in combination with Mr Tom Taylor) a stage version of Peg Woffington under the title of Masks and Faces (1854), the most successful and the most frequently reproduced of his plays, besides three that were less successful, The Courier of Lyons (a powerful melodrama), Two Loves and a Life, and The King's Rivals (1854). From 1856 onwards he kept his position in the foremost rank of contemporary novelists. Five minor novels followed in quick succession,-The Course of True Love never did Run Smooth (1857), Jack of all Trades (1858), The Autobiography of a Thief (1858), Love Me Little, Love Me Long (1859), The Double Marriage, or White Lies (1860). Then appeared, in 1861, what most critics regard as his masterpiece, The Cloister and the Hearth. He had dealt with the subject two years before in a short story in Once a Week, but, seeing its capabilities, he returned to it and expanded it into its present form, As a picture of manners it is broad and full; yet amply as the novelist illustrates the times he very rarely becomes tedious or allows the thrilling interest of the story to lapse. Returning from the 15th century to modern English life, he next produced another startling novel with a purpose, Hard Cash (1863), in which he strove to direct attention to the abuses of private lunatic asylums. Three more such novels, in two of which at least the moral purpose, though fully kept in view, was not allowed to obstruct the rapid flow of thrilling incident, were afterwards undertaken, Foul Play (1869), in which he exposed the iniquities of ship-knackers, and paved the way for the labours of Mr Plimsoll; Put Yourself in his Place (1870), in which he grappled with the tyrannous outrages of trades-unions; and A Woman-Hater (1877), in which he gave a helping hand to the advocates of woman's rights. The Wandering Heir (1875), of which he also wrote a version for the stage, was suggested by the Tichborne trial. Outside the line of these moral and occasional works Reade produced three that might be classified as psychological, inasmuch as they were elaborate studies of character,-Griffith Gaunt (1866),

It was characteristic of Reade's open and combative nature that he admitted the public freely to the secrets of his method of comused himself into one of his novels-"Dr Rolfe" in 4 Terrible position. He spoke about his method in his prefaces; he introTemptation; and by his will he left his workshop and his accumu. lation of materials open for inspection for two years after his death. It appears that he had collected an enormous mass of materials for his study of human nature, from personal observation, from newspapers, books of travel, blue-books of commissions of inquiry, from miscellaneous reading. This vast collection of notes, cuttings, extracts, gathered together week by week and year by year, is classified and arranged in huge ledgers and note-books duly paged and indexed. He had planned a great work on the wisdom and details, and it was chiefly for this that his collection was destined, folly of nations,' dealing with social, political, and domestic but in passing found the materials very useful as a store of incidents and suggestions. A collector of the kind was bound to be systematic, otherwise his collection would have fallen into inextricable confusion, and Reade's collection contains many revalue of this method for his art there has been much discussion, the prevalent opinion being that his imagination was overwhelmed and stifled by it. He himself strenuously maintained the contrary; and it must be admitted that a priori critics have not rightly He did not merely shovel the contents of his note books into his understood the use that he made of his laboriously collected facts. novels; they served rather as an atmosphere of reality in which he worked, so that his novels were like pictures painted in the open air. His imagination worked freely among them and was quickened rather than impeded by their suggestions of things suited to the purpose in hand; and it is probably to his close and constant contact with facts, acting on an imagination naturally fertile, that we owe his marvellous and unmatchable abundance of incident. Even in his novels of character there is no meditative and analytic unceasing progression of significant facts. This rapidity of movestagnation; the development of character is shown through a rapid ment was perhaps partly the result of his dramatic studies; it was probably in writing for the stage that he learned the value of keepThe ing the attention of his readers incessantly on the alert. betrayed him into rough exaggeration, especially in his comic scenes. hankering after stage effect, while it saved him from dulness, often But the gravest defect in his work is a defect of temper. His view of human life, especially of the life of women, is harsh, almost brutal; his knowledge of frailties and vices is obtruded with repellent force; and he cannot, with all his skill and power as a story. teller, be numbered among the great artists who warm the heart and help to improve the conduct. But as a moral satirist and castigator, which was the function he professed over and above that of a story-teller, he undoubtedly did good service, both indirectly in his novels and directly in his own name.

(W. M.)

READING, a market-town and ancient borough of Berkshire, is pleasantly situated on slightly elevated ground on the banks of the Kennet, a short distance above its junction with the Thames, and on branches of the Great Western, South-Eastern, and South-Western Railways, 28 miles south-south-east of Oxford and 35 west of London by rail. Besides the facilities on the Thames there is water communication by the Kennet to Newbury, and by the Kennet and Avon Canal to the Severn. The Thames is crossed by one bridge and the Kennet by three. The