Stadium. The great stadium of the Palatine (see 50 in fig. 17) was begun by Domitian, mainly built by Hadrian, and much altered or restored by Severus. The greater part of the outer walls and the large exedra or apse at the side, with upper floor for the emperor's seat, are of the time of Hadrian, as is shown by the brick stamps, and the character of the brick facing, which much resembles that of the Flavian time (bricks 1 inches and joints inch thick). The stadium is surrounded with a colonnade of engaged shafts, forming a sort of aisle with gallery over it. Except those at the curved end, which are of Hadrian's time, these piers are of the time of Severus, as are also all the flat piers along the outer wall,-one opposite each of those in the inner line. This shows either that the stadium must have been left by Hadrian in an unfinished state, or else that it suffered seriously from a fire or earthquake before the reign of Severus. Hadrian's In addition to the stadium, Hadrian built a number of very palace. handsome rooms, forming a palace on the south-east side and at the south-west end of the stadium. These rooms were partly destroyed and partly hidden by the later palace of Severus, the foundations of which in many places cut through and render useless the highly decorated rooms of Hadrian (53 in fig. 17). The finest of these which is now visible is a room with a large window opening into the stadium near the south angle; it has intersecting barrel vaults, with deep coffers, richly ornamented in stucco. The oval structure shown in the plan (50 in fig. 17), with other still later additions, belongs to the 4th or 5th century, when the stadium was no longer used for races; some of the walls, of opus mixtum, which cut up and disfigure this noble building appear to be the work of Theodoric, c. 500. Palace of The The palace of Septimius Severus was very extensive and of enormous Severus. height; it extends not only all over the south angle of the Palatine but also a long way into the valley of the Circus Maximus and towards the Cœlian. This part (like Caligula's palace) is carried on very lofty arched substructures, so as to form a level, uniform with the top of the hill, on which the grand apartments stood. The whole height from the base of the Palatine to several stories above its summit must have been enormous. Little now remains of the highest stories, except part of a grand staircase which led to them. Extensive baths, all richly decorated with marble linings and mosaics in glass and marble, cover a great part of the top of the hill. These and other parts of the Palatine were supplied with water by an aqueduct built by Nero in continuation of the Claudian aqueduct, some arches of which still exist on the slope of the Palatine (56 in fig. 17; see Spart., Sept. Sev., 24). palace of Severus was restored and enlarged by Heliogabalus and Severus Alexander. 3 One of the main roads up to the Palatine passes under the arched substructures of Severus, and near this, at the foot of the hill, at the south angle, Septimius Severus built an outlying part of his palace, a building of great splendour dedicated to the Sun and Moon, called the Septizonium, probably from its seven stories or zone (see Jordan, Bull. Inst., 1872, p. 145). It has been doubted whether it can really have been as much as seven stories high; but this is not improbable when we consider the enormous height of the rest of Severus's palace, reaching from the foot of the Palatine to far above its summit. Part of the Septizonium existed as late as the reign of Sixtus V. (1585-90), who destroyed it in order to use its marble decorations and columns in the new basilica of St Peter; drawings of it are given by Du Perac, Vestigj di Roma, 1575, and in other works of that century.4 Velia was formed. The foundations of part of Nero's palace along the road between this temple and the Esquiline are exposed for about 20 to 30 feet in height, showing a corresponding lowering of the level here, and the bare tufa rock, cut to a flat surface, is visible on the site of Hadrian's great temple; that the Velia was once much loftier is also indicated by the story of the removal of Valerius Publicola's dwelling." The Velia and Germalus were two outlying spurs of the Palatine.5 Owing to the great alterations that have been made in the contour of the hill it is now very difficult to identify these ancient districts (see Ann. Inst., 1865, p. 347). The Germalus or Cermalus was probably on the side towards the Velabrum, while the Velia may be identified with that elevated ground between the Palatine and the Esquiline on which the temple of Venus and Rome and the arch of Titus now stand. It is evident that this was once much loftier and more abrupt than it is now; a great part of it was cut away when the level platform for the temple of Venus and Rome 1 See Henzen, in the Bull. Inst., 1863, p. 72, and 1867, p. 113. 2 In parts of the outer wall brick stamps of the Flavian period appear, e.g., 3 See Dion Cass., lxxii. 24; Lamprid., Hist. Aug.: Sept. Sev., 19, 24; Id., Sev. 4 See Jordan, Die Kaiserpal. in Rom, Berlin, 1871; Thon, Pal. dei Cesari, On the Velia and the adjoining Summa Sacra Via were two Sacra temples which Augustus rebuilt." The "Ades Larum " is probably Via. the "Sacellum Larum" mentioned by Tacitus (Ann., xii. 24) as one of the points in the line of the pomoerium of Roma Quadrata. The Sacra Via started at the Sacellum Streniæ, an unknown point on the Esquiline, probably near the baths of Titus (Varro, L.L., v. 47), in the quarter called Cerolia. Thence it probably (in later times) passed round part of the Colosseum to the slope leading up to the arch of Titus on the Velia; this piece of its course is lined on one side by extensive baths, attributed to Heliogabalus (45 in fig. 17), and farther back, against the cliff of the Palatine, are remains of Nero's enormous palace (see 42 in fig. 17). From the arch of Titus or Summa Sacra Via the original line of the road has been altered (see Plate VII.); the angle at which the scanty remains of the Regia are set probably shows the early direction of the Sacra Via in passing on to the temple of Vesta. Its later course was more to the north-east, passing at a sharp angle from the arch of Titus to the front of Constantine's basilica, and on past the temple of Faustina. It is uncertain whether the continuation of this road to the arch of Severus was in later times called the Sacra Via or whether it rejoined its old line along the Basilica Julia by the cross-road in front of the Edes Julii. Its original line past the temple of Vesta was completely built over in the 3d and 4th centuries, and clumsily-fitted pavements of marble and travertine Occupy the place of the old basalt blocks. The course of the Nova Via (see figs. 16 and 17) along the palace of Caligula 10 was Nova exposed in 1882-84. According to Varro (L.L., vi. 59) it was a Via. very old road. It led up from the Velabrum, probably winding along the slope of the Palatine, round the north angle under the church of S. Maria Liberatrice. The rest of its course, gently ascending towards the arch of Titus, is now exposed, as are also the stairs, possibly the Scale Anularia, which connected it with the Clivus Victoria at the Porta Romanula; a continuation of these stairs, still unexcavated, led down to the Forum.11 'Germalum' a 5"Huic (Palatio) Germalum et Velias conjunxerunt " The extent of the once marshy Velabrum (Gk., Félos) is not Velaknown, though part of its site is indicated by the church of S. brum. Giorgio in Velabro; Varro (L.L., vi. 24) says, "extra urbem antiquam fuit, non longe a porta Romanula.' It was a district full of shops (Plaut., Capt., iii. 1, 29; Hor., Sat., ii. 3, 229). The Vicus Tuscus on its course from the Forum to the Circus skirted the Velabrum (Dionys., v. 26), from which the goldsmiths' arch was an entrance into the Forum Boarium (comp. Dionys., i. 40). Capitoline Hill. The Capitoline Hill, once called Mons Saturnius (Varro, L. L., v. 42), consists of two peaks, the Capitolium and the Arx,12 with an intermediate valley (Asylum). The older name of the Capi tolium was Mons Tarpeius (Varro, L. L., v. 41). Livy (i. 10) mentions the founding of a shrine to Jupiter Feretrius on the Temple Capitolium by Romulus; 13 this summit was afterwards occupied of by the great triple temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, Jupiter a triad of deities worshipped under the names of Tinia, Thalna, Capitoland Menrva in every Etruscan city. This great temple was (Liv., inus. i. 38, 53) founded by Tarquin I., built by his son Tarquin II., and dedicated by M. Horatius Pulvillus, consul suffectus in 509 B.c.14 It was built in the Etruscan style, of peperino stuccoed and painted (Vitr., iii. 3), with wooden architraves, wide intercolumniations, and painted terra-cotta statues. 15 It was rebuilt many times; the original temple lasted till it was burnt in 83 B.C.; it was then refounded in marble by Sulla, with Corinthian columns stolen from the temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (Plin., xxxvi. 5), and was completed and dedicated by Q. Lut. Catulus, whose name appeared on the front. Augustus, in spite of hi having carried out part of the work, did not introduce his name by the side of that of Catulus. It was again burnt by the Vitellian rioters in 70 A.D., and rebuilt by Vespasian in 71.16 Lastly, it was burnt in the three days' fire 6 Liv., ii. 7; Cic., Rep., ii. 31; see also Ascon., Ad Cic. In Pis., 22. 7 AEDEM LARVM.IN. SVMMA. SACRA. VIA.AEDEM.DEVM. PENATIVM.IN. VELIA. FECI (Mon. Ancyr.). 8 See Goettling, De Sacra Via, Jena, 1834, and Jordan, Topographie der Stadt Rom, Berlin, 1871 (in progress). See Not. d. Scavi, 1882, p. 234. 10 See Solinus (1. 24) and Varro (Ap. Gell., xvi. 17), who mention its two ends, "summa" and "infima" (comp. Liv., v. 32). 11 See marble plan on Plate VII. and comp. Ov., Fast., vi. 395. 12 These two peaks are clearly distinguished by Livy and Strabo, 13 This is the earliest temple mentioned in Roman history, though there was probably in Roma Quadrata the usual triply consecrated temple erected at the founding of the city. It was rebuilt by Augustus, as is recorded in the Mon Ancyr. 14 See Plut., Publ., 15; C. I. L., i. p. 487; Liv., ii. §, iv. 51; Dionys., v. 35 2 of Titus's reign1 and rebuilt with columns of Pentelic marble by Domitian; the gilding alone of this last rebuilding is said to have cost 2 millions sterling (Plut., Publ., 15). There has been much controversy as to the site of this temple and that of Juno Moneta on the Arx; but there is an overwhelming mass of evidence to show that the Capitolium is the peak where the Palazzo Caffarelli stands, and that the church of Ara Coeli occupies the Arx. Livy (xxxv. 21) mentions the fall of a mass of rock from the Capitolium into the Vicus Jugarius, which passes close under the Caffarelli summit, and is not near the opposite peak. Moreover, extensive substructions of tufa and peperino have been exposed on the eastern peak, the form of which appears to fit this nearly square triple temple, and in 1875 a fragment of a fluted column was found, of such great size that it could only have belonged to the temple of Jupiter. Its actual limits have not been clearly made out, and therefore the truth of Dionysius's description (iv. 61) cannot be proved. The temple is represented on many coins, both republican and imperial; these show that the central cella was that of Jupiter, that of Minerva on his right, and of Juno on his left. The door was covered with gold reliefs, which were stolen by Stilicho (c. 390; Zosim., v. 38), and the gilt bronze tiles (Plin., xxxiii. 18) on the roof were partly stripped off by Genseric in 455 (Procop., De Bell. Vand., i. 5), and the rest by Pope Honorius I. in 630 (Marliano, Topogr., ii. 1). Till 1348, when the steps up to Ara Cali were built, there was no access to the Capitol from the back; hence the three ascents to it mentioned by Livy (iii. 7, v. 26-28) and Tacitus (Hist., iii. 71-72) were all from the inside of the Servian circuit. Even on this inner side it was defended by a wall, the gates in which are called "Capitolii fores" by Tacitus. Part of the outer wall at the top of the tufa rock, which is cut into a smooth cliff, is visible from the modern Vicolo della Rupe Tarpeia; this cliff is traditionally called the Tarpeian rock, but that must have been on the other side towards the Forum, from whence it was visible, as is clearly stated by Dionysius (vii. 35, viii. 78).3 Another piece of the ancient wall has recently been exposed, about half-way up the slope from the Forum to the Arx. It is built of soft yellow tufa blocks, five courses of which still remain in the existing fragment. The large temple of Juno Moneta ("the Adviser") on the Arx, built by Camillus in 384 B. C., was used as the mint; hence moneta"money" (Liv., vi. 20). Tabu'ar ium. from the Clivus Capitolinus is by a wide flat arch of peperino most beautifully jointed; the other end wall has been mostly destroyed. The back of this building overlooked the Asylum or depression between the two peaks. From this higher level a long steep staircase of sixty-four steps descends towards the Forum; the doorway at the foot of these stairs has a flat arch, with a circular relieving arch over it; it was completely blocked up by the temple of Vespasian (see fig. 1). This was probably the door where the Vitellian rioters broke into the Capitolium (Tac., Hist., iii 71).7 Great damage was done to this building by the additions of Boniface VIII. and Nicholas V., as well as by its being used as a salt store, by which the walls were much corroded.8 A large number of other temples and smaller shrines stood on the Capitoline Hill, a word used broadly to include both the Capitolium and the Arx. Among these were the temple of Honos and Virtus, built by Marius, and the temple of Fides, founded by Numa, and rebuilt during the First Punic War. Both these were large enough to hold meetings of the Senate. The temple of Jupiter Tonans was built by Augustus (Suet., Aug., 29), near the great temple of Jupiter. Other shrines existed to Venus Victrix, Ops, Jupiter Custos, and Concord-the last under the Arx (Liv., xxii. 33)-and many others, as well as a triumphal arch in honour of Nero, and a crowd of statues and other works of art (see Plin., H.N., xxxiii. 4; xxxiv. 17, 18, 19; xxxv. 36, 45; xxxvi. 5, 8), so that the whole hill must have been a mass of architectural and artistic magnificence, the spoils of the whole Hellenic world. The Imperial Fora. The Forum Julium (see fig. 18), with its central temple of Venus Forum Genitrix, was begun in 49 B.C. after the battle of Pharsalia by Julium. Julius and completed by Augustus. Being built on a crowded site it was somewhat cramped, and the ground cost nearly a hundred million sesterces.10 10 Part of its circuit wall, with remains of five arches, exists in the Via Marmorella; and behind is a row of small vaulted rooms, probably shops or offices. 11 The arches are flat, slightly cambered, with travertine springers and keys; the rest, with the circular relieving arch over, is of tufa; it was once lined with slabs of marble, the holes for which exist. Foundations of the circuit wall exist under the houses towards S. Adriano, but the whole plan has not been made out. Palladio (Arch., iv. 31) describes excavations made here, and the discovery of remains of a fine temple, probably that of Venus Genitrix. 12 The so-called Tabularium occupies the central part of the side towards the Forum; it is set on the tufa rock, which is cut away to receive its lower story. It derives its name from an inscription found there in the 15th century, quoted by Poggio (see Gruter, Inser., 170, 6); but that name was given to many buildings in Rome (Liv., iii. 55, xliii. 16), and there is no reason to suppose that this specially was known as the Tabularium (comp. Virg., Geor., ii. 501). Catulus, who was also the dedicator of the great temple of Jupiter (Tac., Hist., iii. 72; Dion Cass., xliii. 14), was consul in 78 B.C., but part of this building is probably much earlier in date. Its outer walls are of peperino, its inner ones of tufa or concrete; the Doric arcade has capitals and architrave of travertine. A road paved with basalt passes through the building along this arcade, entered at one end from the Clivus Capitolinus, and at the other probably from the Gradus Monetæ, a flight of steps leading from the temple of Concord and the Forum up to the temple of Juno Moneta on the Arx (see Plate VII.). The entrance 1 Snet., Dom., 5; Dion Cass., lxvi. 24. The forum of Augustus (see fig. 18) adjoined that of Julius on Forum of its north-east side; it contains the temple of Mars Ultor, built to Augus 2 See Bull. Comm. Arch., iii., 1875, p. 165; Mon. Inst., v. pl. xxxvi., x. pl. Xxx.a; Hirt, "Der Capit. Jupiter Tempel," in Abhandl. der Berl. Akad., 1813: Niebuhr, Röm. Gesch., i. 55-58; Bunsen, Gesch., iii. 5-14; Becker, Handb., i. p. 387. See also Ann. Inst., 1851, p. 289, for a relief showing the sculpture in the pediment; the front of the temple is shown in one of the reliefs from the arch of M. Aurelius, now in the Capitoline Museum. 3 See Dureau, La roche Tarpienne, Paris, 1816; a graceful account of the legend of Tarpeia is given by Propertius, Eleg., iv. 4. A structure of great sanctity, dating from prehistoric Etruscan times, was the Auguraculum, an elevated platform upon the Arx, from which the signs in the heavens were observed by the augurs (see Festus, ed. Müller, p. 18). This was moved under the empire to the Palatine (see Notitia, &c.), probably by Angustus. What are probably its foundations have been found near the substructures of the great temple (Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom., 1873, iii. p. 165 s.). It is men. tioned in the list of the Mon, Ancyr. 6 The whole of the frieze and cornice is missing; it is usually supposed that there was once another story above this entablature, but there is no evidence of that except Poggio's statement. tus. FIG. 18.-Plan of fora of Julius, Augustus, and Nerva. commemorate the vengeance taken on Caesar's murderers at Philippi, 42 B.C. (Ov., Fast., v. 575 sq.). 13 It was surrounded with a massive 7 Mommsen (Ann. Inst., 1858, p. 211) comes to the conclusion that this building is the Erarium Saturni, but that seems hardly possible, as there is the clearest evidence that that ærarium was in or part of the temple of Saturn (see onte, p. 817). 8 The Porta Pandana ("ever-open gate") was probably situated near the south-west angle of the Tabularium, where the road of the Clivus Capitolinus entered the circuit wall of the Capitoline Hill. See Righetti, Descriz. del Campidoglio, 1833: Azzurri, Antico Tabulario, 1839; Supham, De Capitolio Romano, 1866; and Jordan, Ann. Inst., 1881. 9 See Mon, Ancyr. (quoted at p. 817, note 13, above); Plin., H.N., xxxv. 45, Xxxvi. 24. 10 Cic., Ep. ad Att., iv. 16; Suet., Cars., 26. 11 There is no foundation whatever for the theory that these chambers were part of the "Mamertine prison"; their form and position both make that impossible. 12 See Dion Cass., xliii. 22; Appian, Bell. Cir., ii. 102; Vitr., iii. 3; Plut., Cars, 60. 13 The Ancyraan inscription records-IN. PRIVATO. SOLO. [EMPITO. MARTIS. ULTORIS. TEMPLVM. FORVMQVE. AVGVSTVM. EX. [MANIJBIIS. FECL See Suet., Aug., 29, 56; Dion Cass., Ivi. 27; Min., H.N. XX. 104 Forum Pacis. wall of peperino, nearly 100 feet high, with travertine string-courses and cornice; a large piece of this wall still exists, and is one of the most imposing relics of ancient Rome. Against it are remains of the temple of Mars, three columns of which, with their entablature and marble ceiling of the peristyle, are still standing; it is Corinthian in style, very richly decorated, and built of fine Luna marble. The cella is of peperino, lined with marble; and the lower part of the lofty circuit wall seems also to have been lined with marble on the inside of the forum. The large archway by the temple (Arco dei Pantani) is of travertine. Palladio (Arch., iv.) and other writers of the 16th century give plans of the temple and circuit wall, showing much more than now exists. The temple, which was octastyle, with nine columns and a pilaster on the sides, occupied the centre, and on each side the circuit wall formed two large semicircular apses, decorated with tiers of niches for statues.1 The Forum Pacis, built by Vespasian, was farther to the southeast; the only existing piece, a massive and lofty wall of mixed tufa and peperino, with a travertine archway, is opposite the end of the basilica of Constantine. The arch opened into what was probably the Templum Sacræ Urbis, which contained a plan of the city of Rome. The original plan was probably burnt with the whole group of buildings in this forum in 191, in the reign of Commodus (Dion Cass., Ixxii. 24); but a new plan engraved on marble was made, and the building restored in concrete and brick by Severus. The north-east end wall, with the clamps for fixing the marble plan, still exists, as does also the other (restored) end wall with its arched windows towards the forum (see fig. 19); one BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. made the double building into the church of SS. Cosmo e Damiano, The forum of Nerva (see fig. 18) occupied the narrow strip left Forum of The forum of Trajan with its adjacent buildings was the last and, Forum of at least in size, the most magnificent of all; it was in progress from Trajan. 100 to 117. A great spur of hill, which connected the Capitoline with the Quirinal, was cut away to make a level site for this enor mous group of buildings. It consisted (see fig. 20) of a large dipteral Traj colu Ter TH 3 TEMPLUM SACRE FORUM PACIS J.H.M SACRA VIA FIG. 19.-Group of buildings by the Forum Pacis. 1. Existing wall of peperino hundred and sixty-seven fragments of this plan were found c. 1560 50 100 200 зро 400 FEET which relate to the Forum Magnum are given on Plate VII. The xxxvi. 24, xxxv. 36, xxxiv. 18, vii. 53, where many fine Greek works of art are 1 Those of Roman leaders and generals, from Eneas and Romulus to 2 An interesting description of this discovery is given by Vacca, writing in For accounts of this interesting group of buildings, see De Rossi, Bull. FIG. 20.-Forum of Trajan. That against the slope of the Quirinal, three stories high, still partly exists. The main entrance was through a triumphal arch (Dion Cass., lxviii. 29), from which probably were taken most of the fine reliefs used by Constantine to decorate his arch. Aurei of Trajan show this arch and other parts of his forum. The opposite ... in Via Sacra, 4 "Hic (Felix) fecit basilicam SS. Cosma et Damiani juxta Templum Urbis Roma" (Anastas. Bibl., Vita S. Felicis IV.),--important evidence in favour of Jordan's suggestion. 5 Statues by Phidias and Lysippus existed in the Forum Pacis as late as the 6th century (Procop., Bell. Goth., iv. 21). 6 Drawings of it are given in Du Perac and by Palladio (Arch., iv. 8) 7 See Aul. Gell., xiii. 25, 2; and Amm. Marc., xvi. 10. side was occupied by the Basilica Ulpia (Jordan, For. Ur. Rom.), part of which, with the column of Trajan, is now visible; none of the columns, which are of grey granite, are in situ, and the whole restoration is misleading. Part of the rich paving in Oriental marble is genuine. This basilica contained two large libraries (Dion Cass., lxviii. 16; Aul. Gell., xi. 17). Trajan's The Columna Cochlis (so called from its spiral stairs) is, includcolumn. ing capital and base, 97 feet 9 inches high, i.e., 100 Roman feet; its pedestal has reliefs of trophies of Dacian arms, and winged Victories, with an inscription recording the enormous mass of hill which was removed to form the site (comp. Dion Cass., lxviii. 16). On the shaft are reliefs arranged spirally in twenty-three tiers, scenes of Trajan's victories, containing about 2500 figures. Trajan's ashes were buried in a gold urn under this column (Dion Cass., Ixviii. 16); and on the summit was a colossal gilt bronze statue of the emperor, now replaced by a poor figure of St Peter, set there Temple by Sixtus V. Beyond the column stood the temple of Trajan of Trajan. completed by Hadrian; its foundations exist under the buildings at the north-east side of the modern piazza, and many of its granite columns have been found. This temple is shown on coins of Hadrian. The architect of this magnificent group of buildings was Apollodorus of Damascus (Dion Cass., Ixix. 4), who also designed many buildings in Rome during Hadrian's reign. In addition to the five imperial fora, and the Forum Magnum, Olitorium, and Boarium, mentioned above, there were also smaller markets for pigs (Forum Suarium), bread (Forum Pistorium), and fish (Forum Piscarium), all of which, with some others, popularly but wrongly called fora, are given in the regionary catalogues. Other Other Temples, &c. Besides the temples mentioned in previous sections remains of temples. many others still exist in Rome. The circular temple by the Tiber in the Forum Boarium, formerly thought to be that of Vesta, may be the temple of Hercules mentioned by Macrobius (Saturn., iii. 6), Solinus (Collect., i. 11), and Livy (x. 23). Its design is similar to that of the temple of Vesta in the Forum (fig. 15), and, except the entablature and upper part of the cella, which are gone, it is well preserved (see Piale, Tempio di Vesta, 1817). The neigh bouring Ionic temple, popularly called of Fortuna Virilis, is of special interest from its early date, probably the end of the 2d century B.C. The complete absence of marble and the very sparing use of travertine, combined with the simple purity of its design, are all proofs of its great antiquity. It has a prostyle tetrastyle portico of travertine, and a short cella of tufa with engaged columns; the bases of these and of the angle columns are of travertine. The friezo has reliefs of ox skulls and garlands. The whole was originally stuccoed and painted so that the different stones used would not show. Fig. 21 gives the plan, showing the hard travertine used at the points of greatest pressure, while the main walls with the half J.H.M. columns are of Fig. 21.-So-called temple of Fortuna Virilis. The black the weaker and shows tufa; the shading travertine. softer tufa. The dedication of this temple is doubtful; on the whole it appears most probable that it is the temple to Fortuna (without any affix) founded by Servius Tullius (Dionys., iv. 27) in the Forum Boarium, not the one to Túxn'Avopeia (Fors Fortuna ?) mentioned as being by the river (comp. Plut., De Fort. Rom., 5). Ten columns of what is probably the temple of Ceres, Liber, and Libera exist in situ, built up in the end and side walls of the church of S. Maria in Cosmedin. These have well sculptured composite capitals and wide intercolumniation,-probably a survival of the original design of this temple, which was Tuscan in style (Vitr., iii. 3, 5; Plin., H.N., xxxv. 45). It was founded by Aulus Postumius, dictator in 497 B.C., and dedicated by Spurius Cassius, consul in 494 B.C. 1 Its pedestal is inscribed, "Senatus Populusque Romanus Imp. Casari Divi Nerva F. Nerve Trajano Aug. Germ. Dacico Pontif. Maximo Trib. Pot. XVII. [5.6., 114 A.D.] Imp. VI. P. P. ad declarandum quantæ altitudinis mons et locus tant(is operibus sit egestus." This cannot be taken literally, as the ridge which was cut away never approached 100 feet in height, but possibly means that the cliff of the Quirinal was cut back to a slope reaching to a point 100 feet high (see Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 133; Becker, Handb., note 737) 2 See Fabretti, Columna Trajana (1683), who gives drawings of all the reliefs'; also De Rossi, Col. Traj. designata. The reliefs, from their lofty position, are now difficult to see, but originally must have been very fairly visible from the galleries on the colonnades which once surrounded the column. 3 See Aul. Gell., xi. 17, 1; Spart., Hist. Ang.: Hadr., 19; and compare Pausanias (v. 12, 6; x. 5. 11), who mentions the gilt bronze roofs of Trajan's forum. See Fea, Foro Trajano, 1832; Richter. Ristauro del Foro Trajano, 1839; Bartoli, Col. Trajana, 1704; Pistolesi, Col. Trajana, 1846; Froehner, La Colonne Trajane, Paris, 1865. (Dionys., vi. 17, 94). In 31 B.C. it was burnt (Dion Cass., 1. 10), and was rebuilt by Augustus and Tiberius (Tac., Ann., ii. 49); but the existing columns belong to a still later restoration. The temple stands close to the carceres of the Circus Maximus, in the Forum Boarium. Within the walls of S. Niccolo in Carcere (sec fig. 22) in the Forum Olitorium are preserved remains of the tufa cellæ and travertine columns of three small hexastyle peripteral temples, two Ionic and one Tuscan, set close side by side. A fragment of the marble plan includes part of this group, as is indicated on fig. 22. Two of these temples were probably those to Spes and Juno Sospita (Liv., xxi. 62, xxxii. 30); the third may be that of Apollo Medicus (Liv., xl. 51), as suggested by Burn (Rome and Campagna, 1871, TUSCAN IONIC. IONIC. note i. p. 306). J.H.M. 10. 20. 30. 40. 50. Near the Forum 100.FT Olitorium, in the FIG. 22.-Plan of three temples on site of S. Niccolo in modern Ghetto, Carcere; the part within the line A, A is that shown on are extensive rea fragment of the marble plan. The black shows what still exists. mains of the large group of buildings included in the Porticus Octavia, two of which, dedicated to Juno Regina and Jupiter Stator, with part of the enclosing portions and the adjoining temple of Hercules Musarum, are shown on a fragment of the marble plan. The Porticus Octavia, Porticus a large rectangular space enclosed by a double line of columns, was Octavia. built in honour of Octavia by her brother Augustus on the site of This must not be conthe Porticus Metelli, founded in 146 B. C. founded with the neighbouring Porticus Octavia founded by Cn. Octavius, the conqueror of Perseus (Liv., xlv. 6, 42), in 168 B. C., and rebuilt under the same name by Augustus, as is recorded in the Ancyræan inscription. The whole group was one of the most magnificent in Rome, and contained a large number of works of art by Phidias and other Greek sculptors. The existing portico, which was the main entrance into the porticus, is a restoration of the time of Severus in 203. The church of S. Michele and the houses behind it conceal extensive remains of the porticus and its temples (see Ann. Inst., 1868, p. 108; and Contigliozzi, I Portici di Ottavia, 1861). Remains of a large peripteral Corinthian temple are built into Temple the side of the "Dogana di Terra," near Monte Citorio. Eleven of Nepmarble columns and their rich entablature are still in situ, with the tune. corresponding part of the cella wall of peperino; in 1878 a piece of the end wall of the cella was discovered, and, under the houses near, part of a large peribolus wall, also of peperino, forming an enclosure with columns all round the temple nearly 330 feet square (see Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom., vi., pl. iv., 1878). The dedication of this temple is not known; it has commonly been identified with the temple of Neptune (Dion Cass., lxvi. 24), built by Agrippa, and surrounded by the Porticus Argonautarum (Dion Cass., liii. 27; Mart. iii. 20, 11); but its details appear to be later than the reign of Augustus. Another not improbable theory is that it was the temple of Hadrian, mentioned in the Mirabilia (Uhlrichs, Codex Topogr., Würtzburg, 1871, p. 107) as being near this spot. The temple of Venus Felix and Roma Eterna on the Velin (see Temple fig. 23) was the largest in Rome; it was pseudo-dipteral with ten of Venus Corinthian columns of Greek marble at the ends, and probably and twenty at the sides; it had an outer colonnade round the peribolus Rome. of about 180 columns of polished granite and porphyry. Of these only a few fragments now exist; for several centuries the whole area of this building was used as a quarry, while the residue of the marble was burnt into lime on the spot in kilns built of broken fragments of the porphyry columns. A considerable part of the two cell with their apses, set back to back, still exists; in each apse was a colossal seated figure of the deity, and along the side walls of the celle were rows of porphyry columns and statues in niches. The vault is deeply coffered with stucco enrichments once painted and gilt. The roof was covered with tiles of gilt bronze, which were taken by Pope Honorius I. (625-638) to cover the basilica of St Peter's. These were stolen by the Saracens during their sack of the Leonine city in 846. The emperor Hadrian himself designed this magnificent temple, which was partially completed 5 For drawings of them see Ann. Inst., 1850, p. 347, and Mon. Inst., v. 24; also Labacco, Architettura, 1557. 6 The remains of the Porticus Octavia are now being more completely exposed by the demolition of the Ghetto. 7 This, however, is not conclusive, as the temple of Neptune may have been completely rebuilt after the fire which injured it in $0. Build was probably finished by Antoninus Pius; it was partly burned in That part of the Coelian Hill which is near the Colosseum is Private houses. many of these are recorded in the Notizie degli Scavi and the Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom., 1872-1876. The extensive cutting away of the Tiber bank for the new embankment exposed some very ornate houses near the Villa Farnesina, richly decorated with marble, fine wall-paintings, and stucco reliefs, equal in beauty to any works of the kind that have ever been found. Some of these were cut off the wall, and will be exhibited in a new museum about to be formed to contain all ancient works of art found in Rome; but the houses themselves have been destroyed. The laying out of the new Quirinal and Esquiline quarters also has exposed many fine buildings. One handsome villa, built over the Servian wall, may possibly be the house of Maecenas. A very remarkable vaulted room, decorated with paintings of plants and landscapes, has been shown to be a greenhouse; at one end is an apse with a series of step-like stages for flowers. This one room has been preserved, though the rest of the villa has been destroyed; it is on the road leading from S. Maria Maggiore to the Lateran. The walls are a very fine specimen of tufa opus reticulatum, unmixed with brick, evidently earlier than the Christian era. Among the numerous buildings discovered in the Horti Sallustiani near the Quirinal is a very fine house of the 1st century A.D., in concrete faced with brick and opus reticulatum. It has a central circular domed hall, with many rooms and staircases round it, rising several stories high. This house was set in the valley against a cliff of the Quirinal, so that the third floor is level with the upper part of the hill. It is nearly on the line of the Servian wall, which stood here at a higher level on the edge of the cliff. This is identified as the house of Sallust, which at his death became crown property, and was used as a residence by Nero (Tac., Ann., xiii. 47) and other emperors till the 4th century.4 In 1884, near the Porta S. Lorenzo, a long line of houses was discovered during the making of a new road. Some of these were of opus reticulatum of the 1st century B.C.; others had the finest kind of brick-facing, probably of the time of Nero; all had been richly decorated with marble linings and mosaics. The line of the street was parallel to that of the later Aurelian wall, which at this part was built against the back of this row of houses. At the same time, behind the line of houses, were uncovered fine peperino and tufa piers of the aqueduct rebuilt by Augustus, one arch of which forms the Porta S. Lorenzo. These interesting remains have all been completely destroyed. A fine house of the end of the 1st century A.D., with richly decorated walls, was exposed in June 1884 against the slope of the Quirinal, near the Palazzo Colonna; it was immediately destroyed to make room for new buildings. The so-called temple of Minerva Medica on the eastern slope The prætorian camp was first made permanent and surrounded Prætor with a strong wall by the emperor Tiberius (Suet., Tib., 37). ian camp. Owing to the camp being included in the line of the Aurelian wall a great part of it still exists; it is a very interesting specimen of early imperial brick-facing. The wall is only 12 to 14 feet high, and has thinly scattered battlements, at intervals of 20 feet. The north gate (Porta Principalis Dextra) is well preserved; it had a tower on each side, now greatly reduced in height, in which are small windows with arched heads moulded in one slab of terracotta. The brick-facing is very neat and regular, the bricks being about 1 inches thick, with -inch joints. On the inside of the wall are rows of small rooms for the guards. Part of the Porta Decumana also remains. This camp was dismantled by Constantine, who removed its inner walls; the outer ones were left because they formed part of the Aurelian circuit. The present wall is nearly three times the height of the original camp wall. The upper part was added when Aurelian included it in his general circuit wall round Rome. The superior neatness and beauty of Tiberius's brick-facing make it easy to distinguish where his work ends and that of the later emperors begins. Owing to the addition of the later wall it requires some care to trace the rows of battlements which belong to the camp. The excavations of recent years have brought to light, and in 2 See Palladio (Terme dei Romani, London, 1782), who gives the plan of this The Pantheon is the most perfect among existing classical build- Parings in Rome (see fig. 24). It was built by Agrippa in 27 B.C., thecon. as is recorded on the frieze of the portico. What its original pur pose was is not clear; on the one hand, it forms part of the great thermæ built by Agrippa, and in position and design closely resembles the great circular calidarium in the thermæ of Caracalla; on the other hand, has no hypocaust or hot-air flues, and was certainly consecrated as a temple to Mars, Venus, and other sup posed ancestors of Caesar's family very soon after it was built (Dion Cass., liii. 27); it was used as the meeting-place of the Fratres Arvales before they began to meet in the temple of Concord (see Henzen, Acta Frat. Arval., 1868, No. 71). It had the name Pantheum apparently from the first; Pliny (H.N., xxxvi, 4) men 3 Bull. Inst., 1875; see also Bull. Comm. Arch., 1874, where drawings are given. 4 During excavations made here in 1876 lead pipes were found inscribed with the name of the estate, the imperial owner (Severas Alexander), and the plumber who made them-HORTORVM. SALLVSTIAN. IMP.SEV. ALEXANDRI. AVG. NAEVIVS. MANES. FECIT. 5 The demolition of the block of houses which was built against it at the back has exposed the point of junction between the Pantheon and the therm It is now apparent that the Pantheon originally was an isolated building, and that the union of it and the therma was a later alteration. |