tioned the three according to tradition marking the burial-places of the three sons of a Danish king. The largest, at Shandwick, Clacha-charridh, or the "Stone of Lamentation," was blown down in a storm in 1847 and broken into three pieces; a smaller one at Nigg churchyard, struck down by the fall of the belfry in 1725, has been re-erected and fenced round; and the third, which formerly stood at Cadboll of Hilltown has been removed for preservation to the grounds of Invergordon Castle. An ancient vitrified fort, 420 feet by 120, crowns the hill of Knockfarrel in Fodderty parish. Among old castles are those of Lochslin, in the parish of Fearn, said to date from the 13th century, which, though very ruinous, still possosses two square towers in good preservation; Balone, in the parish of Tarbat, said to have been built by the earls of Ross; and the remains of Dingwall Castle, the earls of Ross's original seat. Of the abbey of Fearn, transferred from Edderton in 1338, and interesting as having had for its tenth abbot the Reformer Patrick Hamilton, the abbey church, much altered, is still used as the parish church. There are a very large number of fine modern mansions. ROSS, SIR JAMES CLARK (1800-1862), arctic voyager, was born in London 15th April 1800. He entered the navy in 1812 under his uncle Sir John Ross (see below), whom he accompanied in his first voyage in search of a north-west passage. From 1819 to 1825, and again in 1827, he was engaged with Captain Parry in his voyages. He served under his uncle from 1829 to 1833, discovering the position of the north magnetic pole on 1st June 1831 (see POLAR REGIONS, vol. xix. p. 320). He commanded the expedition in the "Erebus" and "Terror" to the Antarctic seas from 1839 to 1843, and after his return he received in 1844 the honour of knighthood. In 1847 he published A Narrative of a Voyage in the Antarctic Regions, 2 vols. His last expedition was in 1848 in the "Enter prise to Baffin's Bay in search of Sir John Franklin. He died at Aylesbury, 3d April 1862.

ROSS, SIR JOHN (1777–1856), arctic voyager, was the fourth son of the Rev. Andrew Ross, minister of Inch, Wigtonshire, where he was born in 1777. He entered the navy in 1786. In 1818 he sailed in command of an Arctic expedition (see POLAR REGIONS, vol. xix. p. 319), an account of which he published, under the title Voyage of Discovery for the Purpose of Exploring Baffin's Bay, in 1819. In 1829, through the munificence of his friend Sir Felix Booth, he was able to undertake a second expedition (see vol. xix. p. 320). Shortly after his return in 1833 he was knighted, made C.B., and elected a member of many learned societies. In accordance with a promise made to Sir John Franklin, he undertook a third expedition in 1850 and remained one winter on the ice, but accomplished nothing. His own account of the causes of his failure is given in a pamphlet published in 1855. He died 31st August 1856.

Ross also wrote A Treatise on Navigation by Steam, 1828; Mcmoirs and Correspondence of Admiral Lord De Saumarez, 1838; Arctic Expedition, 1850; and several other minor works.

ROSSANO, a city of Italy, in the province of Cosenza, most picturesquely situated on a precipitous spur of the great mountain mass of Sila (geologically the oldest part of Italy) overlooking the Gulf of Taranto. The railway station, 93 miles from Taranto, is about an hour from the town. Rossano is the seat of an archbishop and the centre of a circondario; marble and alabaster quarries are worked in the neighbourhood; and the inhabitants numbered 14,688 in 1881 (17,979 in the commune). In the cathedral is preserved the Codex Rossanensis, an uncial MS. of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark (6th century) in silver characters on purple vellum, with twelve miniatures, of great interest in the history of Byzantine art.

Mentioned in the Itineraries, Rossano (Roscianum) appears under the Latin empire as one of the important fortresses of Calabria. Totila took it in 548. The people showed great attachment to the Byzantine empire, and the Greek rite was maintained in the cathedral till the time of the Angevins. In the 14th century Rossano was made a principality for the great family of De Baux. Passing to the Sforza, and thus to Sigismund of Poland, it was ultimately in 1558 united to the crown of Naples by Philip II. of Spain in virtue of a doubtful will by Bona of Poland in

favour of Giovanni Lorenzo Pappacoda. Under Isabella of Aragon and Bona of Poland the town had been a centre of literary culture; but under the Spaniards it rapidly declined even in the matter of population (2256 households in 1561, 1177 in 1669). The crown sold the lordship in 1612 to the Aldobrandini, and from them it passed to the Borghesi and the Caraffa. Rossano is best known as the birthplace of St Nilus the younger, whose life is the most valuable source of information extant in regard to the state of matters in southern Italy in the 10th century. Pope John VII. (705-707) was also a native of the town. See Lenormant, La Grande-Grèce, vol. i.

ROSSE, WILLIAM PARSONS, THIRD EARL OF (18001867), the distinguished constructor of reflecting telescopes, was born at York on June 17, 1800, a son of the second earl, who as Sir Lawrence Parsons, Bart., had been a prominent member of the Irish Parliament. Until his father's death (1841) he was known as Lord Oxmantown. He was M.P. for King's County from 1821 to 1834, Irish representative peer from 1845, president of the Royal Society from 1848 to 1854, and chancellor of the university of Dublin from 1862. From 1827 he devoted himself to the improvement of reflecting telescopes; in 1839 he mounted a telescope of 3 feet aperture at his seat, Birr Castle, Parsonstown; and in 1845 his celebrated 6-foot reflector was finished. Owing to the famine and the disturbed state of the country, which demanded his attention as a large landowner and lieutenant of King's County, the instrument remained unused for nearly three years, but since 1848 it has been in constant use, chiefly for observations of nebulae, for which it was particularly suited on account of its immense optical power. Lord Rosse died on October 31, 1867.

The first constructor of reflecting telescopes on a large scale, William Herschel, never published anything about his methods of been very successful beyond specula of 18 inches diameter, his 4casting and polishing specula, and he does not appear to have foot speculum ("the 40-foot telescope") having been very little used by him (about this question sec an interesting discussion between Sir J. Herschel and Robinson in The Athenæum, Nos. Rosse had therefore no help whatever in working his way from a 831-36, 1843, which deserves to be rescued from oblivion). Lord small beginning to the brilliant results he achieved. His speculum metal is composed of four equivalents of copper and one of tin, a very brilliant alloy, which resists tarnish better than any other material, Lord Rosse's first larger specula were composed of a compound tried. Chiefly owing to the extreme brittleness of this number of thin plates of speculum metal (sixteen for a 3-foot mirror) soldered on the back of a strong but light framework made of a peculiar kind of brass (2.75 of copper to 1 of zinc), which has the same expansion as his speculum metal. In Brewster's Edinburgh Journal of Science for 1828 he described his machine for polishing the speculum, which in all essential points remained unaltered afterwards. Ít imitates the motions made in polishing a speculum by hand by giving both a rectilinear and a lateral motion to the polisher, while the speculum revolves slowly; by shifting two eccentric pins the course of the polisher can be varied at will from a straight line to an ellipse of very small eccentricity, and a true parabolic figure can thus be obtained. The speculum lies face upwards in a shallow bath of water (to preserve a uniform temperature), and the polisher fits loosely in a ring, so that the rotation grinding and polishing tools are grooved, to obtain a uniform disof the speculum makes it revolve also, but more slowly. Both the tribution of the emery used in the grinding process and of the rouge employed in polishing, as also to provide for the lateral expansion of the pitch with which the polisher is coated. In September 1839 a 3-foot speculum was finished and mounted on an altazimuth stand similar to Herschel's; but, though the definition of the images was good (except that the diffraction at the joints of the speculum caused minute rays in the case of a very bright star), and its peculiar skeleton form allowed the speculum to follow atmospheric changes of temperature very quickly, Lord Rosso decided to cast a solid 3-foot speculum. Hitherto it had been felt as a great difficulty in casting specula that the solidification did not begin at one surface and proceed gradually to the other, the common sand mould allowing the edges to cool first, so that the central parts were subject to great straining when their time of cooling came, and in large castings this generally caused cracking. By forming the bottom of the mould of hoop iron placed on edge and closely packed, and the sides of sand, while the top was left Lord Rosse overcame this difficulty, and the hoop iron had the further advantage of allowing the gas developed during the cooling to escape, thus preventing the speculum from being full of

open,

pores and cavities. This happy invention secured the success of the casting of a solid 3-foot speculum in 1840, and encouraged Lord Rosse to make a speculum of 6 feet diameter, which he also succeeded in doing in 1842. In the beginning of 1845 this great reflector (which up to the present time has remained without a rival) was mounted and ready for work. The instrument has a focal length of 54 feet and the tube is about 7 feet in diameter; owing to these large dimensions it cannot be pointed to every part of the heavens, but can only be moved a short distance from the meridian and very little to the north of the zenith; these restrictions have, however, hardly been felt, as there is almost at any moment a sufficient number of objects within its reach. From 1848 to 1878 it was with but few interruptions employed for observations of nebule; and many previously unknown features in these objects were revealed by it, especially the remarkable spiral configuration prevailing in many of the brighter nebulæ. A special study was made of the nebula of Orion, and the resulting large drawing gives an extremely good representation of this complicated object. Since 1845 others have followed in Lord Rosse's footsteps and several 3- and 4-foot mirrors have been made, while the development of refracting telescopes has been so rapid that, whereas twentyfive years ago there were no object glasses larger than 15 inches in existence, a 30-inch glass has now actually been completed. But, though the refractors surpass the large reflectors in general convenience of use and are very much better adapted to work of precision (micrometer measures), Lord Rosse's great reflector is still unapproached in light-grasping power, and remains a noble monument of its maker, who (as beautifully expressed on a memorial tablet in the parish church of Birr) "revealed to mankind by the unrivalled creation of his genius a wider vision of the glory of God."

Lord Rosse gave a detailed account of the experiments which step by step had led to the construction of the 3-foot speculum in the Philosophical Transactions for 1840. In the same publication for 1844 and 1850 he communicated short descriptions and drawings of some of the more interesting nebule, and in the volume for 1861 he published a paper On the Construction of Specula of 6 feet aperture, and a Selection from the Observations of Nebula made with them, with numerous engravings. The accounts of the observations given in these papers were, however, of a very fragmentary character; but in 1879-80 a complete account of them was published by the present earl ("Observations of nebula and clusters of stars made with the 6-foot and 3-foot reflectors at Birr Castle from 1848 to 1878") in the Scient. Trans. R. Dublin Soc., vol. ii. The drawing of the nebula of Orion was published in the Phil. Trans, for 1868:

ROSSELLI, COSIMO (1439-c. 1507), a Florentine painter, was born in 1439. At the age of fourteen he became a pupil of Neri di Bicci, and in 1460 he worked as assistant to his cousin Bernardo di Stefano Rosselli. The first work of Cosimo mentioned by Vasari still exists in S. Ambrogio, in Florence, over the third altar on the left. It is an Assumption of the Virgin, a youthful and feeble work of but little merit. In the same church, on the wall of one of the chapels, is a fresco by Cosimo which Vasari praises highly, especially for a portrait of the young scholar Pico of Mirandola. The scene, a procession bearing a miracleworking chalice, is painted with much vigour and less mannerism than most of this artist's work. A picture painted by Rosselli for the church of the Annunziata, with figures of SS. Barbara, Matthew, and the Baptist, is now in the Academy of Florence. Rosselli also spent some time in Lucca, where he painted several altarpieces for various churches, none of any great importance. A picture attributed to him, taken from the church of S. Girolamo at Fiesole, is now in the National Gallery of London. It is a large retable, with, in the centre, St Jerome in the wilderness kneeling before a crucifix, and at the sides standing figures of St Damasus and St Eusebius, St Paolo and St Eustachia; below is a predella with small subjects. Though dry and hard in treatment, the figures are designed with much dignity. The Berlin Gallery possesses three pictures by Rosselli, the Virgin in Glory, the Entombment of Christ, and the Massacre of the Innocents. In 1480 Rosselli, together with the chief painters of Florence, was invited by Sixtus IV. to Rome to assist in the painting of the frescos in the Sistine Chapel. Three of these were executed by him the Destruction of Pharaoh's Army in the Red Sea, Christ Preaching by the Lake of Tiberias, and the Last Supper. The last of these is still well preserved, but is a very mediocre work. Vasari's story about the pope admiring his paintings more than those of his abler brother painters

Marble Relief by Antonio Rossellino. still exist, and are of the highest beauty, full of strong religious sentiment, and executed with the utmost delicacy of touch and technical skill. The style of Antonio and his brother (see below) is a development of that of Donatello and Ghiberti; it possesses all the refinement and soft sweetness of the earlier masters, but is not equal to them either in vigour or originality. Antonio's chief work, still in perfect preservation, is the very lovely tomb of a young cardinal prince of Portugal, who died in 1459, aged only twenty-six. It occupies one side of a small chapel on the north of the nave of San Miniato. The recumbent effigy of the cardinal is very remarkable for the grace of its pose and the beauty of the portrait face. It rests on a handsome sarcophagus, and over it, under the arch which frames the whole, is a beautiful relief of the Madonna between two flying angels. The tomb was begun in 1461 and finished in 1466; Antonio received four hundred and twenty-five gold florins for it. A reproduction of this tomb with slight alterations, and of course a different effigy, was made by Antonio for the wife of Antonio Piccolomini, duke of Amalfi, in the church of S. Maria del Monte at Naples, where it still exists. For the same church he also executed some delicate reliefs, which perhaps err in being too pictorial in style, especially in the treatment of the backgrounds. A fine medallion relief by him is preserved in the Bargello at Florence (see fig.), and the original terra cotta model for this is in the possession of Mr Drury Fortnum; in some small matters of 1 Illustrated by Gonnelli, Mon. Sepol. della Toscana, Florence, 1819, plate xxiii.

detail the original terra cotta is superior to the finished marble, especially in the treatment of the infant Christ. ROSSELLINO, BERNARDO (1409-1464), was no less able as a sculptor than his younger brother (see above), and was also a very distinguished architect. His finest piece of sculpture is the tomb, in the Florentine Santa Croce, of Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo, the historian of Florence; the recumbent effigy is a work of great merit. The inner cathedral pulpit at Prato, circular in form on a tall slender stem, was partly the work of Mino da Fiesole and partly by Bernardo Rossellino. The latter executed the very minute reliefs of St Stephen and the Assumption of the Virgin. For his part in the work he received sixty-six gold florins. The South Kensington Museum possesses a relief by Bernardo, signed and dated (1456). It is a fine portrait of the physician Giovanni da S. Miniato.1 Bernardo's works as an architect were very numerous and important, and he was also very skilful as a military engineer. He restored the church of S. Francis at Assisi, and designed several fine buildings at Civita Vecchia, Orvieto, and elsewhere. He also built fortresses and city walls at Spoleto, Orvieto, and Civita Castellana. He was largely employed by Nicholas V. and Pius II. for restorations in nearly all the great basilicas of Rome, but at present little trace of his work remains, owing to the sweeping alterations which were made during the tasteless 17th and 18th centuries. Between the years 1461 and 1464 (the date of his death) he occupied the important post of capo-maestro to the Florentine duomo. A number of buildings at Pienza, executed for Pius II., are attributed to him; the Vatican registers mention the architect of these as M° Bernardo di Fiorenza, but this indication is too slight to make it certain that the elder Rossellino is referred to (see Vasari, ed. Milanesi, iii. 93 sq.).

ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL (1828-1882), poet and painter, whose full baptismal name was Gabriel Charles Dante, was born May 12, 1828, at 38 Charlotte Street, Portland Place, London. He was the first of the two sons and the second of the four children of Gabriele Rossetti, the Italian poet and patriot, whose career was at one period as turbulent as that of his illustrious son was (as far as mere outward incidents went) uneventful.

About 1824 Gabriele Rossetti, the father, after many vicissitudes, reached England, where he married in 1826 Frances Polidori, sister of Byron's Dr Polidori and daughter of a Tuscan who had in early youth been Alfieri's secretary and who had married an English lady. From his mother the subject of this notice inherited as many English traits as Italian, or indeed more. In 1831 Gabriele became professor of Italian in King's College, London, and afterwards achieved a recognized position as a subtle and original, if eccentric, commentator on Dante.

Dante Rossetti's education was begun at a private school in Foley Street, Portland Place, where he remained, however, only nine months, from the autumn of 1835 to the summer of 1836. He next went (in the autumn of 1836) to King's College School, where he remained till the summer of 1843, having reached the fourth class. From early childhood he had displayed a marked propensity for drawing and painting. It had therefore from the first been tacitly assumed that his future career would be an artistic one, and he left school early. In Latin, however, he was already fairly proficient for his age; French he knew well; Italian he had spoken from childhood, and he had some German lessons about 1844-45. But, although he learned enough German to be able to translate the Arme Heinrich of Hartmann von 1 See Perkins, Italian Sculptors, 1864, i. p. 207; also Id., Tuscan

Sculptors, p. 202, and Historical Handbook of Italian Sculpture, 1883,

p. 121.

| Aue, and some portions of the Nibelungenlied, he afterwards forgot the language almost entirely. His Greek too, such as it had been, he lost. On leaving school he went to Cary's Art Academy (previously called Sass's), near Bedford Square, and thence obtained admission to the Royal Academy Antique School towards 1846. He did not attend the Royal Academy Life School, and no doubt his defective knowledge of anatomy was some obstacle to him in after life. The truth is, however, that Rossetti's occasionally defective drawing (which, as regards the throat, is most striking) did not arise mainly from ignorance; it was the result of a peculiar mannerism. Admiring long and slender necks, and drawing them admirably in such masterpieces as Beata Beatrix and Monna Vanna, he refused to see that in art as in ethics the point of virtue lies midway between two opposite vices. Admiring large hands and massive arms in a woman, and drawing them admirably in such designs as Proserpine, Reverie, &c., he refused to see that hands can be too large, arms too massive. As a colourist, however, Rossetti may be said to have required no teaching. Mastery over colour seemed to have come to him by instinct.

Of the artistic education of foreign travel Rossetti had very little. But in early life he made a short tour in Belgium, where he was indubitably much impressed and influenced by the works of Van Eyck at Ghent and Memling at Bruges. In the spring of 1848 he took an active part in forming the so-called pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, the members of which believed that the time had come for the artist to confront again Nature herselfimitating no longer man's imitations of her-even though the imitations be those splendid works of the great Raphaelite or post-Raphaelite masters which had hitherto been the inspiration of modern art. The revolution was to be one of motives no less than of methods. Of motive Rossetti was from the first a master. His struggle with methods we have already indicated.

To "paint nature as it is around them, with the help of modern science,' was the object of the pre-Raphaelites according to Mr Ruskin, but to do so artists require something more than that "earnestness of the men of the 13th and 14th centuries" which Mr Ruskin speaks of: they require knowledge. Without knowledge, as we see in even such a marvellous design as Christ at the Door of Simon the Pharisee (1859), the artistic camel has to be drawn from the artist's inner consciousness, and the result is rarely a satisfactory quadruped. Intensity of seeing does not necessarily imply truth of seeing; otherwise what phenomenon can be more real than Blake's Ghost of a Flea?

But Rossetti's genius absorbed from pre-Raphaelitism all that it had to give, and then passed on its way towards its own special goal. Often and indeed mostly an artist's true and best education is unlearning rather than learning. It was so in Rossetti's case, though he had the most vivid personality and the rarest imagination of any man of his time. Plastic as molten wax, the mind from the dawn of consciousness begins learning, for good or ill. Youth, therefore, how rich soever in individual force, can no more help being imitative than a river, even though it be the Amazon itself, can help reflecting the scenery through which it flows. The goal before the young Rossetti's eyes (as we see in such designs as Taurello's First Sight of Fortune, 1848, and Cassandra) was to reach through art the forgotten world of old romance-that world of wonder and mystery and spiritual beauty which the old masters knew and could have painted had not lack of science, combined with slavery to monkish traditions of asceticism, crippled their strength. And he reached it—he reached early that world which not all the pseudo-classicism that arose in the 15th century, ripened in the 16th, and rotted XX. 108