12 known except in the topography. GAELIC difference between the language of the Book of Deer and the There is not a shade of language of the Irish writings of the same age. The following specimen of the notices of grants of land may be interesting:-Donchad mac mec bead mec hided dorat achad madchor docrist acus drostan acusdocholuimcille insóre gobrád malechi acuscómgell acusgille crist mac fingúni innáienasi intestes, &c. 66 Duncan, son of MacBeth, son of Idid, gave Achad Madchor to Christ, and to Drostan, and to Columcille, in freedom for ever; Malechi, and Comgall, and Gilchrist, son of Fingon, witnesses in proof of it." The notice of grants continue in similar form, being records kept within the monastery of what had been given. The Book of Deer is a work of much interest to the Gaelic scholar, and his best thanks are due to the Spalding Club and the late Dr John Stuart for the excellent volume they have published, containing all that is interesting in the original, with a full and learned account of it. Of the period immediately after the Book of Deer there are several MS. remains of Scottish Gaelic writing in existence. There is the Glenmasan MS. in the Edinburgh Advocates' Library, inscribed with the date 1238, and containing several interesting fragments. Here we find the famous lay of Deirdre or Darthula, connected with the story of the sons of Usnoth. The whole character of this MS. is identical with that of the Irish MSS., and yet it is mani festly a Scottish work. There are lives of saints preserved; one of these, in the Advocates' Library, is the life of St Findchua. Mr Skene, in his Chronicles of the Picts and Scots, gives transcripts of several important MSS., as the Duan Albanach, or poetical accounts of the Scottish kings, recited by the royal bard at the coronation of Malcolm Kenmore. This was copied from an Irish MS., but is manifestly a Scottish composition. The bards of both Ireland and Scotland often crossed the Irish Channel, and their works were well known on both sides of it. The 14th and 15th centuries were a period of revival of literature over the whole continent of Europe, and the Celts of Great Britain and Ireland felt the impulse. This was a period of much writing both in Ireland and in Scotland. The remains that exist are of a varied kind, and are numerous, especially those of the 15th century. the only Gaelic charter that we possess, which is printed, Of this century is with a translation, in the National Records of Scotland. Of this age also are numerous medical MSS. Some of these belonged to the famous family of Beatons, hereditary physicians to the Lords of the Isles, and contain accounts of such remedies as were believed at the time to have efficacy in the cure of disease. Others are metaphysical treatises, while others deal with what were looked upon as the great and important mysteries of astrology. Of this period also are most of the written genealogies that remain. The remarkable thing is the extent to which the Gaelic language bears the marks of cultivation at the time. In both medicine and metaphysics words are found to express the most abstract ideas, which could not be understood by the modern Highlander. As has already been said, some of these writings are translations from Arabic writers, as Averroes, Avicenna, Iacobus de Forlivio, and others. The state of learning at the time in the Highlands was not behind that in the rest of the kingdom. The clergy and the physicians, and even the bards, were possessed of real Learning, and have left evidence of it. The 16th century was the period of two important additions to Gaelic literature. called "The Dean of Lismore's book, The first of these was what is poetical pieces, and an obituary, chiefly of the M'Gregor a collection of chiefs, made about the year 1512. The work has recently been transcribed, translated, and edited, with notes by the Rev. Dr M'Lauchlan, and an introduction and additional helped to settle several interesting questions connected The 18th century was productive of large additions to A the Reay bard, flourished about the same time, and has left numerous admirable pieces of Gaelic poetry. Others were also successful composers, such as William Ross of Gairloch, and the religious poet of the Highlands, Dougal Buchanan. And towards the close of the century was published Gillies's Collection of Gaelic Poetry, one of the best collections we possess, containing, as it do 3, many authentic pieces of Ossianic poetry taken down when the old clan system was still in force in the Highlands to a larger extent than now. But the 18th century was distinguished by two works of special interest, in different departments. The first of these was the Gaelic translation of the Bible, and the second was Macpherson's Ossian. The former was executed chiefly by the Rev. James Stewart, of Killin, and his son the Rev. Dr John Stewart, of Luss,-two eminent scholars, who had all the soundness of judgment necessary for such a work. This translation of the Bible has been most popular in the Highlands and throughout the British colonies where the Gaelic is still spoken. The Gaelic learn cannot do better at the outset than master the Gaelic Bible. Macpherson's Ossian appeared about the same time, but not in Gaelic. It appeared first in English dress. This was the only mode of making the general public acquainted with it. Macpherson's first small volume of fragments appeared altogether in English; it would have been well if both the original and the translation had been published simultaneously. The only part of the Gaelic that was published before 1818 was what is called a "Specimen of the Original of Temora," given with the other poems in English in 1762. The opinions with regard to the authenticity of Macpherson's Ossian are as various as ever, and yet considerable progress has been made in the discovery of truth, which all parties are prepared to acknowledge. It has been established that poems ascribed to Ossian have been known and written down in the Highlands for 300 years, that many of them have been handed down by tradition, that these were fragments referring to certain important events in the history of the Gaelic race, and that there was nothing to make it improbable that such poems as those translated by Macpherson could have existed. Further, it is clear that the Highlanders at once, whether they knew the pieces or not as given by Macpherson, recognized them as in a style familiar to them, and as relating to persons and events with which they were familiar. That Mac herson found materials for his work in the Highlands is beyond a doubt, and it seems quite as manifest that he used very considerable liberties with them in order to serve his object of producing a great Gaelic epic poem or poems. In 1818 the full Gaelic version was printed, long after the death of James Macpherson. The Poems of Ossian, as collected, and translated, and edited by Macpherson, are a valuable and interesting addition to Gaelic literature, and enter largely into the history of the modern literature of Europe. The Saxon may have his doubts about Ossian, and may have little scruple or delicacy in stating them, but the Gael knows more about Ossian than he does about Milton, and is more familiar with his heroes than with those of Homer. The 19th century, has seen many large contributions to the literature of the Gaelic Celt. It has shared in the general progress of learning, and with this it has risen in the estimation of the scholars of Europe. Grammars and dictionaries have been compiled; magazines of various kinds have been started and carried on for a time with much vigour; collections, such as Mackenzie's Beauties of Gaelic Poetry, have been made; and such provisions have been laid up for the future as to secure an ample supply of materials for the scholars of a coming age. That appears to be the special work laid upon the scholars of the present time. They have to collect materials and commit them to writing, and to describe the peculiarities that are distinctive of a living language, for the use of those who hereafter can only study it as existing in books, where emphasis, and tone, and accent are altogether unknown, and where the comments and expositions of living men, familiar with the language and the literature from their childhood, are altogether awanting. For that the Gaelic language is in a state of decay is manifest to the most ordinary observer. And the decay is twofold, being both within and without. Within, the vocabulary is waning, and English words are coming into use. Gaelic idioms are in like manner disappearing, and English idioms replacing them; while from without, under the influence of education, immigration, steamboats, railways, and other modern devicés, English is rapidly finding its way into the land, and pushing the ancient tongue out of it. When this process is completed, a change will befall the people too, for there is no doubt that there is a close relation between the character of a language and the character of the people who use it; so that, when the Gaelic disappears, many of the features dístinctive of the Highland character will disappear along with it. In some respects this will be cause of regret; in others perhaps it will not. At the close of the article CELTIC LITERATURE a list is given of the existing MS. remains of Gaelic literature. It may interest readers and aid students of Gaelic to furnish here a list of some of the more important printed books in the language. They are as follows: Fragments in Report of Highland Society on Ossian; Fragments in Chronicles of Picts and Scots; The Book of Deer; The Book of the Dean of Lismore; Carsewell's Prayer Book; Bedell's and O'Donell's Bible; The Gaelic Psalter, various editions; The ConVocabulary; Ossian's Poems; Smith's Scan Dana; Gillies's Collection fession of Faith, and Catechisms; Lhuyd's Vocabulary; M'Donald's of Poems; Macdonald's Poems; M'Intyre's Poems; Rob Donn's Poems; Dougal Buchanan's Hymns; M'Callum's Collection of Poetry; The Gaelic Bible; Stewart's Collection of Poems; Turner's Collection of Poems; Sacred Poetry of the North, edited by Rose; The Beautics of Gaelic Poetry, M'Kenzie; Grant's Hymns; M'Intosh's Gaelic Proverbs; Stewart's Gaelic Grammar; Munro's Gaelic Grammar; Highland Society's Gaelic Dictionary; Armstrong's Gaelic Dictionary; M'Alpin's Gaelic Dictionary; Highland Tales, collected and edited by J. F. Campbell; Leabhar na Feinn, by J. F. Campbell; An Duanaire, by D. C. M'Pherson; An Teachdaire Gaelach, by Rev. Dr M'Leod; An Fhiauis, by Rev. Dr Mackay; An Gaidheal, a magazine; numerous translations from the English, chiefly religious works; Connell's Astronomy; M'Kenzie's History of Scotland; besides many others. (T. M‘L.) GAETA, at one time the "Gibraltar of Italy," a strongly. fortified seaport town in the province of Caserta, at the extremity of a peninsula forming the N.W. boundary of the Gulf of Gaeta, with a station on the railway 40 miles N.W. of Naples. The citadel occupies the heights of the peninsula, and the town stretches below in a long thin line. To the east lies the harbour, one of the safest on the whole coast, with a depth of about 15 feet. The principal buildings are the cathedral, the churches, the conventual buildings (of which the most noteworthy are those of the Franciscans and the Benedictines), the hospital, and the foundling asylum. In the cathedral, which was founded or partially built by Barbarossa, are several objects of historical interest-the body of St Erasmus (the St Ermo or Elmo, whose "fires" are familiar to the Mediterranean sailor); the standard presented by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the hero of the battle of Lepanto; and a baptismal font from the ruins of Formia, which had formerly been an altar to Bacchus, and still bears the Greek inscription Zaλrív Anvaîos éπoinore. Among the larger remains of Roman Gaeta are a temple and an aqueduct; and the circular Torre d'Orlando, which crowns the height above the citadel, is, it reality, the sepulchre of L. Munatius Plancus, as is distinctly proved by a well-preserved inscription. The suburbs of Gaeta, called Castellona, Mola di Gaeta, and Del Borgo, are larger than the town itself, and form a separate commune under the name of Formia (see FORMIA). The population of the town in 1871 was 7193, and of the commune, which includes Anatola, 18,385. Gætulians rose in revolt and massacred the Roman residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been inflicted on them by Cossius Lentulus that they consented to recognize their gratuitous sovereign. By his victory Lentulus acquired the title of Gætulicus. Ibn Said in the middle of the 13th century, Ibn Khaldun at the end of the 14th, Leo Africanus in the beginning of the 16th, and Marmol about sixty years later, are all quoted by M. Vivien de St Martin in his Le Nord de l'Afrique, 1863, as mentioning, a mountainous country called Gozulé, Gutzula, or Guézula in the south of Morocco. He is disposed further to identify the Gætulians with the Goclâla, who, according to Ibn Said, occupied the maritime portion of the great desert, and are referred to by other Arabian geographers as the Djoddala; and it is even possible, he thinks, that their name survives in that of the Ghedala between Cape Blanco and the Lower Senegal on the one hand, and that of the Beni Guechtula in the Algerian province of Bougie on the other. Gaeta is identified with Caieta, a town of great antiquity, about whose origin and name very different accounts are offered by the various Greek and Roman writers. Virgil makes it the burial-place of Caieta the nurse of Æneas, while Strabo connects the name with a Laconian word signifying a cavern. In Cicero's time the harbour of Caieta was a portus celeberrimus et plenissimus navium, and it was afterwards greatly improved by Antoninus Pius. As a town, the Roman Caieta does not appear to have attained to any great development or importance. On the fall of the Western empire it became a republic, or free town, under the Byzantine government, and it was also the residence of the imperial prætor for Sicily. A considerable increase of its population and power resulted from the destruction of the neighbouring town of Formia by the Arabs, in 850. In the 9th century Pope John VIII. bestowed the fief on Pandolf, count of Capua; but in 877 Duke Docibilis called in the assistance of the Arabs against the Capuans, and in the course of the 11th century we find the people of Gaeta exercising their rights for the election of their dukes. At a later period the fief became an apanage of the princes of the successive dynasties of Naples. The capture of the town by Pedro, brother of the king of Aragon, in 1435, was followed by the erection of the fortress to which so much of its subsequent importance was due.. Ferdinand the GAGE, THOMAS (1721-1787), governor of Massachusetts, Catholic and Charles V. both added to the strength of its defences. second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born in England In 1707 the citadel was taken by storm by the Austrian general, Daun, after a three months' siege; and in 1734 it was forced to capi-tenant-colonel of the 44th regiment of foot in 1750, was in 1720. He entered the army at an early age, became lieutulate, after a five months' siege, by the allied army under Charles, afterwards king of Naples. In 1806 it was brilliantly defended against the French, under Masséna, by Prince Louis of HessenPhilippsthal, who was, however, severely wounded and obliged to leave the fortress to its fate. Pope Pius IX. found an asylum in the governor's palace at Gaeta in 1848, and remained there till September 1849. In 1861 it afforded a last point of defence for Francis II. of Naples, who capitulated to the Piedmontese on 13th February. Gaeta has given the name of Gaetani to a famous Italian family, about whose original connexion with the town there are, however, various accounts; and Antonio di Gaeta, one of the great Benedictine missionaries to Africa in the 17th century, bears the mark of his origin. Jee Rosetto, Breve descrizione delle cose più notabili di Gaeta, reprinted by Antonio Bulifone, at Naples, in 1690; “Geschichte von Gaeta," in Oester. milit. GÆTULIA, or the land of the Gætuli, an ancient district of somewhat uncertain limits in northern Africa. It may be roughly said to have been bounded on the N. by Mauretania and Numidia, E. by the country of the Garamantes, S. by the basin of the Niger, and W. by the Atlantic; but the frontiers must have been of a very uncertain and shifting character. The Gætulians, who, according to a tradition mentioned by Sallust, were one of the two great aboriginal races of northern Africa, appear to have retreated inland before the encroachments of the Numidians and Mauretaniaus, but continued to make incursions over a wide stretch of country. Ethnographically, they were quite distinct from the negro races, and indeed probably belonged to the great Berber race, which still forms so important an element in the population of North Africa. Their southern tribes having mingled with negro tribes, acquired the distinctive title of Melano-Gætuli or Black Gætulians. A warlike, roving people, they bestowed great attention on the rearing of horses, and, according to Strabo, had 100,000 foals in the course of a year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh and the milk of their cows, mares, and camels, and took almost no advantage of the valuable productions of their country. It was not till the Jugurthine war that they became familiar to the Romans; but after wards their name occurs with great frequency in Latin poetical literature, and, indeed, the adjective Gætulian became little more than a synecdoche for African. Allusions are more particularly made to Gætulian purple, which was obtained from the murex of the African coast. In the Jugurthine war some of the Gætulian tribes assisted the Numidian king with a contingent of horse; but during the civil war Cæsar found among them very serviceable allies in his contest with Juba. Augustus, having made Numidia a Roman province, affected to assign a portion of the Gætulian territory to Juba as a compensation; but the made major-general and governor of Montreal in 1761, and in 1763 succeeded Amberst in the command of the British forces in America. In 1774 he was appointed governor of Massachusetts, and in that capacity was entrusted with carrying into effect the Boston Port Act. In this political crisis, by his hesitancy in adopting measures against the leaders of the insurrectionary party, and contenting himself with fortifying Boston, he enabled the Americans to mature their plans in comparative security. The battle at Lexington, in which a detachment sent by him, on the 18th April 1775, to destroy the cannon and ammunition at Concord was defeated, inaugurated the American revolutionary war. On the 12th June he proclaimed martial law, and proscribed Samuel Adams and John Hancock, offering pardon to all the other rebels who should return to their allegiance; but the result of these measures was at once to exasperate and encourage the Americans. Although Gage gained the nominal victory of Bunker's Hill (June 17), he was unable to raise the siege of Boston; and being shortly afterwards superseded by General Howe, he sailed for England. He died in.1787. GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST, BARON VON (1766-1852), a German statesman and political writer, was born at Kleinniederheim, near Worms, January 25, 1766. After completing his studies at the universities of Leipsic and Göttingen, he entered the service of the prince of Orange-Nassau, whom in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards appointed ambassador to Paris, where he remained till the decree of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left side of the Rhine to serve any other power than France, compelled him to resign his office. He then retired to Vienna, and in 1812 he endeavoured to promote insurrection against Napoleon in Tyrol. On the failure of this attempt he left Austria and joined the headquarters of the Prussian army. When the prince of Orange became king of the Netherlands, Baron Gagern was appointed his prime minister, and in 1815 he represented him at the congress of Vienna, and succeeded in obtaining for the Netherlands a considerable aggrandisement of territory. From 1816 to 1818 he continued to be Netherland ambassador at the German diet, where, while endeavouring to promote German unity, he also advocated the adoption of measures which should secure the independ ence of the individual states. In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate of Hornau, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but, as a member of the first chamber of the states of the grand duchy, he continued to take an active share in the promo tion of measures for the welfare of his country. He retired from public life in 1848, and died at Hornau, 22d October 1852. Three of the sons of Baron Gagern have attained considerable eminence-one as a soldier, and two, who are still living (1879), as politicians. His principal works are-Die Resultate der Sittengeschichte, 6 vols., 1808-1822; Die Nationalgeschichte der Deutschen, Vienna, 1812; 2d ed. in 2 vols., Frankfort, 1825-26; Mein Antheil an der Politik, 4 vols., Stuttgart, 1823-33; Kritik des Völkerrechts, Leipsic, 1840; and Civilisation, Leipsic, 1847. GAILLAC, the capital of an arrondissement in the department of Tarn, France, is situated on the right bank of the Tarn, 12 miles W. of Albi. It possesses two churches of the 13th century, a communal college, a hospital, a theatre, and a military prison. Its industries include the manufacture of wine casks, leather, brandy, bricks, and various kinds of coarse cloth; and it has a considerable trade in corn, vegetables, dried plums, and wine, the white and red wines of the arrondissement having a high reputation. Gaillac was in existence in the 7th century. It was captured by the English in 1280, and its archives were taken to London. Even at that time it was famed for its wines, which, under the name of Vin du Cog, were exported to England and Holland. The population in 1876 was 6099. GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806), a French historian, was born at Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the bar, but after finishing his studies adopted the literary profession, ultimately devoting his chief attention to history. In 1801 he was chosen a member of the French Academy, and he was also one of the original members of the Institute. For forty years he was the intimate friend of the minister Malesherbes. He died at St Firmin, near Chantilly, 13th February 1806. Gaillard is painstaking and impartial in his statement of facts, and his style is correct and elegant, but the unity of his narrative is somewhat destroyed by digressions, and by his method of treating war, politics, civil administration, and ecclesiastical affairs under separate heads. His most important work is his Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l'Angleterre, in 11 vols., 1771-1777; and among his other works may be mentioned Essai de rhétorique française, à Tusage des jeunes demoiselles, 1745, often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the author; Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne, 1757; Histoire de François I., 7 vols. 1776-1779; Histoire des grandes querelles entre Charles V. et François I., 2 vols., 1777; Histoire de Charlemagne, 2 vols., 1782; Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l'Espagne, 8 vols., 1801; Dictionnaire historique, 6 vols., 1789-1804, making part of the Encyclopédie méthodique; and Mélanges littéraires, containing éloges on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille, La Fontaine, Malesherbes, and others. GAINSBOROUGH, a market-town and port of Lincolnshire, is situated on the right bank of the Trent, 21 miles above its junction with the estuary of the Humber, and 16 miles N.W. of Lincoln. It consists chiefly of one long well-paved street running parallel to the river, which is here crossed by a fine stone bridge of three arches. The parish church, a fine building in the Grecian style, was rebuilt in 1748, with the exception of the old tower, which belongs to the 12th century. Holy Trinity church, built in 1843, has annexed to it an ecclesiastical district taken out of the old parish of Gainsborough. The old hall, supposed to have been partly built by John of Gaunt, is a curious oaktimber framed building, forming three sides of a quadrangle, and having a tower 78 feet high. It has been restored, and part of it converted into a corn exchange and assembly roonis. Gainsborough possesses a grammar school (founded in 1589 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other schools, a town-hall, a county court-house, a literary institute, a temperance hall, a savings-bank, and a provident dispensary. Ship-building is carried on, and there are manufactories of linseed cake, ropes, malt, and tobacco, with breweries and | iron and brass foundries. Vessels of 200 tons burden can come up to the town. The population in 1871 was 7564, and since that date has been rapidly increasing: us, GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS (1727-1788), a painter famous for the truth and elegance of his portraits, and for the simple beauty of his landscapes, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in the year 1727. His father, who carried on the business of a woollen crape-maker in that town, was of a respectable character and family, and was noted for his skill in fencing; his mother excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged her son in the use of the pencil. There were nine children of the marriage. At ten years old, Gainsborough had sketched every fine tree and picturesque cottage near Sudbury, and at fifteen, having filled his taskbooks with caricatures of his schoolmaster, forged his father's handwriting to get a holiday, and sketched the portrait of a man whom he had detected in the act of robbing his father's orchard, he was allowed to follow the bent of his genius in London, under such advantages as Hayman, the historical painter, and the academy in St Martin's Lane, could afford. Three years of study in the metropolis were succeeded by two years of idleness in the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young lady of many charms, including an annuity of £200, married her after a short courtship, and, at the age of twenty, became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being £6 a year. The annuity was reported to come from Margaret's real (not her putative) father, who was one of the exiled Stuart princes, or else the duke of Bedford. At Ipswich, Gainsborough tells he was "chiefly in the face-way," though his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society of Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many landscapes with an attention to details which his later works never exhibited, or from joining a musical club, and entertaining himself and his fellow-townsmen by giving concerts. But as he advanced in years he became ambitious of advancing in reputation. Bath was then the general resort of wealth and fashion, and to that city, towards the close of the year 1759, he removed with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their marriage. His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; he gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40 guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas. Among his sitters at this period were the authors Sterne and Richardson, and the actors Quin, Henderson, and Garrick. Meanwhile he contributed both portraits and landscapes to the annual exhibitions in London. indulged his taste for music by learning to play the viol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His house harboured Italian, German, French, and English musicians. He haunted the green-room of Palmer's theatre, and painted gratuitously the portraits of many of the actors. He gave away his sketches and landscapes to any one who had taste or assurance enough to ask for them; and in the summer of 1774, having already attained a position of great prosperity, he took his departure for the metropolis, and fixed his residence at Schomberg House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still standing, for which the artist paid £300 a year. He Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he received a summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he divided with West the favour of the court, and with Reynolds the favour of the town. Sheridan, Burke, Clive, Blackstone, Hurd, were among the number of those who sat to him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited, were commended, won the good opinion of Walpole the fastidious and Wolcot the surly, and were year after year returned to him, "till they stood," says Sir William Beechey, "ranged in long lines from his hall to his painting-room." Gainsborough was a member of the Royal | Academy, but in 1784, being dissatisfied with the position assigned on the exhibition-walls to his portrait of the three princesses, he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never afterwards exhibited there. In February 1788, while witnessing the trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary chill at the back of his neck; this was the beginning of a caucer (or, as some say, a malignant wen) which proved fatal on 2d August of the same year. Gainsborough was tall, fair, and handsome, generous, impulsive to the point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish likings. The property which he left at his death was not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married contrary to his wishes, and was subiect to fits of mental aberration. Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest portrait painters of the English school. It is difficult to say which stands the higher of the two, although Reynolds may claim to have worked with a nearer approach to even and demonstrable excellence. In grace, spirit, and lightness of insight and of touch, Gainsborough is peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight for the most part, and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree masterly; and his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted than his portraits. Among his finest works are the likenesses of Lady Ligonier, the duchess of Devonshire, Master Buttall (the Blue Boy), Mrs Sheridan and Mrs Tickell, Orpin the parish-clerk (National Gallery), the Hon. Mrs Graham (Scottish National Gallery), his own portrait (Royal Academy), Mrs Siddons (National Gallery); also the Cottage Door, the Market Cart, the Return from Harvest, the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm (destroyed by fire), and Waggon and Horses passing a Brook (National Gallery). He made a vast number of drawings and sketches. In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, lieut. -governor of Landguard Fort, who had been active in promoting Gainsborough's fortunes at starting, but was not on good terms with him when he left Bath, gave to the world A Sketch of the Life and Paintings of Thomas Gainsborough; in 1829 Allan Cunningham published a memoir of him in his Lives of the Painters; and in 1856 there appeared A Life of Thomas Gainsborough, R. A., by G. W. Fulcher. GAISSIN, GAICYN, or HAISCIN, a town of Russia, at the head of a district in Podolia, 178 miles E. of Kamenetz Podolski or Podoliau Kamenetz, in 48° 39′ N. lat. and 29° 23′ E. long., near the river Sop, a tributary of the Bug. With few exceptions, the houses are built of wood, and the inhabitants are mainly supported by agriculture. Among the public buildings are an orthodox church, a synagogue and four Jewish chapels, and a town hospital. In 1860 the population was 10,106, of whom 1863 were Jews. In the St Petersburg Calendar for 1878 the total is given as 9417. Gaissin dates from about 1600: in one of the Acts of 1615 it is stated that Heyszyn or Gaissin was founded with royal privilege by the ban Swierski about 15 years before. In 1659 King John Casimir of Poland bestowed it on Maximus Buliga the Zaporogian chief. It obtained Magdeburg rights in 1744 or 1745; and in 1796, after the incorporation of Podolia with Russia, it was made a district town. GAIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history very little is known. It is impossible to discover even his full name, Gaius or Caius being merely a personal uame (prænomen) very common in Rome. From internal evidence in his works it may be gathered that he flourished in the reigns of the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus. His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180, at the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and its government the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some provincial town, and hence we find no contemporary notices of his life or works. After his death, however, his writings were recognized as of great authority, and the emperor Valentinian named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestin, and Paulus, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be followed by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these jurists accordingly became most important sources of Roman law. Besides the Institutes, which are a complete exposition of the elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the Edicts of the Magistrates, of Commentaries on the Twelve Tables, and on the important Lex Papia Poppaa, and several other works. His interest in the antiquities of Roman law is apparent, and for this reason his work is most valuable to the historian of early institutions. In the disputes between the two schools of Roman jurists he generally attached himself to that of the Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius Capito, of whose life we have some account in the Annals of Tacitus, and to advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules, and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of Gaius occur in the Digest of Justinian, and so acquired a permanent place in the system of Roman law; while a comparison of the Institutes of Justinian with those of Gaius shows that the whole method and arrangement of the later work were copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous passages are word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of the period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and Justinian, the Institutes of the former had been the familiar text-book of all students of Roman law. Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in 1816, a manuscript was discovered by Niebuhr at Verona, in which certain of the works of St Jerome were written over some earlier writings, which proved to be the lost work of Gaius. The greater part of the palimpsest has, however, been deciphered by various German scholars, and the text is now fairly complete. This discovery has thrown a flood of light on portions of the history of Roman law which had previously been most obscure. Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of the ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be traced "survivals" from the most primitive times, which provide the science of compara tive law with valuable illustrations, which may explain the strange forms of legal procedure found in other early systems. Another circumstance which renders the work of Gaius more interesting to the historical student than that of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time when actions were tried by the system of formulæ, or formal directions given by the prætor before whom the case first came, to the judex to whom he referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulæ it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the ancient law of Rome were modified by what has been called the equitable jurisdiction of the prætors, and made applicable to new conditions, and brought into harmony with the notions and the needs of a more developed society. It is clear from evidence of Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an independent set of courts administering, as in England until recently, a system different from that of the ordinary courts, but by the manipulation of the formula. In the time of Justinian the work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared. The Institutes of Gaius are divided into four books-the first treating of persons and the differences of the status they may occupy in the eye of the law; the second of things, and the modes in which rights over them may be acquired, including the law relating to wills; the third of intestate succession and of obligations; the fourth of actions and their forms. |