doned item is the most considerable; the exports to | to Hiram (1 Kings ix. 11; 2 Chr. viii. 2); and here, notEngland from Coruña alone having mounted in 1875 to withstanding the conquests made successively by Joshua, 17,000 head, at an average value of £15. The chief im- several of the judges, David, and Solomon, the population ports are coal, iron, tobacco, and manufactured goods. seems to have retained a prevailingly ethnic character; Apart from the few carreteras reales or royal roads, which for even in Isaiah's time "the land of Zebulun and are, as elsewhere in the Peninsula, unexceptionable, the the land of Naphtali" is called "Galilee of the Genmeans of internal communication in Galicia are decidedly tiles" (Isa. ix. 1). 'After the deportation by Tiglath Pileser defective. The only railways are those betwixt Lugo and (2 Kings xv. 29), in which it is to be presumed that chiefly Coruña (61 miles), and betwixt Santiago and Carril (24 Israelites were carried away, this ethnic character would miles). Another line, from Vigo to Orense, has been in most probably be intensified and extended rather than course of construction for some time, and it is also proposed diminished either in area or in amount; and already in the to connect Lugo with Astorga. Galicia has 10 cities and time of the Maccabees, accordingly, we find the word appar 115 towns. The capital is Santiago, which is also an arch-ently used in a considerably wider sense than in earlier bishopric, with a population of 29,000. Lugo, Tuy, Mon- times (1 Macc. v. 14, 15, x. 30; cf. Tob. i. 2). The later doñedo, Orense, are also episcopal sees. The largest city is The largest city is extension of the designation cannot be more particularly Coruña, the seat of the audiencia (population about 40,000). traced, but we know with considerable exactness what the The others are Ferrol, Vigo, Betanzos, and Pontevedra. limits were at the time of the Talmudists. The southern Gallacia, the country of the Callaici or Gallaici, seems to have boundary was defined by the towns of Bethshean (Beisân), been very imperfectly known to the earlier geographers. Accord- Ginea (Jenîn), Caphar Utheni (Kefr Adân), and by the ing to Eratosthenes the entire population of the peninsula were at ridge of Carmel; on the east the Jordan formed the limit; one time called Galatæ. The region properly called by their name, bounded on the S. by the Douro and on the E. by the Navia, was while on the west and north the line ran from Carmel to first entered by the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus in Accho (Akka), and thence ascended eastwards by a great 137-6 B.C. (Livy, lv., lvi., Epi.); but the final subjugation cannot valley just south of Achzib (ez Zîb) extending 8 miles, past be placed earlier than the time of Augustus. Under the Antonines, possibly even under Hadrian, Gallæcia and Asturia were erecte Kabartha (el Kâbry), Gathin (J'athûn), and Beth Zanita into a separate Provincia Cæsaris, having been regarded previously (Zucinita), to Gelila (Jelil), where it turned north near as merely a portion of Lusitania. On the partition of Spain, which M'alia, probably the Melloth which Josephus notices as on followed the successful invasions of the Suevians, Alans, and Van- his boundary (B. J., iii. 3, 1). From Melloth it ran 12 dals, Gallæcia fell to the lot of the first-named (411 A.D.). After an miles north to Kania and Aiya (probably Kanah and 'Aiya), independent subsistence of nearly 200 years, the Suevian kingdom and then appears to have run east along a high ridge by was annexed to the Visigothic dominions under Leovigild in 590. In 713 it was occupied by the Moors, who in turn were driven out Berii and Tirii (Beriâs and Tîreh), and thence, after a of it about the year 734 by Alphonso I. of Asturias and his brother course of 5 miles, it trended north-east by Tifni (Tibnîn), Froela. During the 9th and 10th centuries it was the subject of Sifneta (Safed el Battîkh), Ailshitha ('Atshith), and Aulam dispute between more than one count of Galicia and the suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Norsemen. When (Almôn), arriving thus at the deep gorge of the Leontes. Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063, Galicia Turning east it passed Migdol Kherub (el Khurbeh) and the was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the three. Ten "hollow of Ayun" (Merj 'Ayûn), past Takra (unknown) years afterwards it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia's brother to Alphonso, and thenceforward it remained an integral part of the kingdom of Castile or of Leon. The honorary title of count of Galicia has frequently been borne by younger sons of the Spanish sovereign. In the patriotic struggles of 1808 the junta of Galicia took an important part. For administrative purposes the ancient province has since 1833 been divided into four, namely, Coruña, Lugo, Orense, and Pontevedra.

GALILEE (Tariλaía, 5), the most northerly of the three provinces into which Palestine was at the Roman period divided, was bounded on the E. by the Jordan, on the S. by Samaria, on the W. by the Mediterranean, on the N.W. by Phoenicia, and on the N. by the Leontes, the extreme length being about 60 miles, the extreme breadth 30, and the area 1000 square miles. The Galilee thus defined, however, though doubtless the Galilee of Herod's tetrarchy and of later centuries, was hardly that of ordinary parlance at the beginning of the Christian era. Josephus himself, while substantially giving these boundaries (B. J., iii. 3, 1, and elsewhere), yet incidentally in one place speaks of Upper Galilee as constituting the whole of Galilee proper (Ant. xx. 6, 1), and elsewhere in giving Xaloth (Iksal) and Dabaratta (Debûrieh) as boundary towns, seems to exclude from Galilee the plain of Esdraelon. In the early period of the history of Israel, the word or n, meaning a circle, was hardly a proper name at all, but was applied to several districts with considerable generality. Thus in Josh. xiii. 2 and Joel iv. 4 reference is made to the "borders" or "coasts" (Geliloth) of the Philistines. In Josh. xxii. 10, 11, however, the "Geliloth" of Jordan means the plain of Jordan referred to in Ezekiel xlvii. 8 as "the eastern Gelilah" (compare Josh. xviii. 7); while in Josh. xx. 7, xxi. 32, hag-Galil denotes the north portion of the territory of Naphtali westward of Merom, where Kadesh, one of the six cities of refuge, lay. Here were situated the twenty "worthless" cities which Solomon gave

Tortalga ("the snowy mountain," or Hermon), and to Kisrin and the Dounds of Iitir-that is, to Cæsarea Philippi (now Bânias), and thus to beyond Jordan. The boundary between Upper and Lower Galilee was natural, being marked on the east by the town of Caphar Hananya (Kefr 'Anâu), situated at the foot of the high ridge which formed the actual line; Bersobe, on the same boundary (Josephus, B. J., iii. 3, 1), is not as yet known.

Lower Galilee.-The whole of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed over the plateau above the sea of Galilee. In this district the highest hills are only about 1800 feet above the sea. The ridge of Nazareth rises north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and north of this again is the fertile basin of the Buttauf, separated from the seacoast plains by low hills. East of the Buttauf extends the basaltic plateau called el Ahma ("the inaccessible"), rising 1700 feet above the sea of Galilee. North of the Buttauf is a confused hill country, the spurs falling towards a broad valley which lies at the foot of the mountains of Upper Galilee. This broad valley, running westwards to the coast, is the old boundary of Zebulun-the valley of Jiphthah-el (Josh. xix. 14). The great plain of Esdraelon is of triangular form, bounded by Gilboa on the east and by the ridge which runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 miles long from Jenîn to the Nazareth hills, and has a mean measurement of 9 miles east and west. It rises 200 feet above the sea, the hills on both sides being some 1500 feet higher. The whole drainage is collected by the Kishon, which runs through a narrow gorge at the north-west corner of the plain, descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea. The broad valley of Jezreel on the east, descending towards the Jordan valley, forms the gate by which Palestine is entered from beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor stands isolated

ing to a mountain and plain, near an ancient ruin, in the
required position. The little village of Kades represents
the once important town of Kadesh Naphtali (Josh. xix.
37). The ruins are here extensive and interesting, but
belong, apparently to the Greek period.

The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee
the peasants are principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of
Greek Christians round Nazareth, which is a Christiau
town. In Upper Galilee, however, there is a mixture of
Jews and Maronites, Druses and Moslems (natives or
Algerine settlers), while the slopes above the Jordan are
inhabited by wandering Arabs. The Jews are engaged in
trade, and the Christians, Druses, and Moslems in agricul-
ture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral people.

The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil, and soap (from the olives), with every species of pulse and gourd.

in the plain at the north-east corner, and rather further | Hazor, has been found by the survey party in 1877 apply-
south the conical hill called Neby Duby rises between Tabor
and Gilboa. The whole of Lower Galilee is well watered.
The Kishon is fed by springs from near Tabor and from a
copious stream from the west side of the plain of Esdraelon.
North-west of Nazareth is Wâdy el Melek, an open valley
full of springs. The river Belus, just south of Acre, rising
in the sea-coast marshes, drains the whole valley of Jiphthah-
el. On the east the broad valley of Jezreel is full of
magnificent springs, many of which are thermal. The
plains of Esdraelon, and the Buttauf, and the plateau of el
Ahma, are all remarkable for the rich basaltic soil which
covers them, in which corn, cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco,
millet, and various kinds of vegetable are grown, while
indigo and sugar-cane were cultivated in former times. The
Nazareth hills and Gilboa are bare and white, but west of
Nazareth is a fine oak wood, and another thick wood
spreads over the northern slopes of Tabor. The hills west
of the great plain are partly of bare white chalk, partly
covered with dense thickets. The mountains north of the
Buttauf are rugged and covered with scrub, except near the
villages, where fine olive groves exist. The principal places
of importance in Lower Galilee are Nazareth (10,000
inhabitants), Sepphoris (now Seffûrieh), a large village
standing above the Buttauf on the spurs of the southern hills,
and Jenîn (En Gannim), a flourishing village, with a palm
garden (3000 inhabitants). The ancient capital, Jezreel
(Zerin), is now a miserable village on a precipitous spur of
Gilboa; north of this are the small mud hamlets, Solam
(Shunem), Endar (Endor), Nein (Nain); on the west side
of the plain is the ruin of Lejjûn (the Legio of the 4th
century, which was then a place of importance). In the
hills north of the Buttauf is Jefât, situated on a steep hill-
top, and representing the Jotapata defended by Josephus.
Kefr Kenna, now a flourishing Christian village at the foot
of the Nazareth hills, south of the Buttauf, represents the
probable site of Cana of Galilee, and the ruin Kâna, on the
north side of the same plain, represents the site pointed out
to the pilgrims of the 12th and 13th centuries.

Upper Galilee. The mountains are tilted up towards the
sea of Galilee, and the drainage of the district is towards
the north-west. On the south the rocky range of Jebel❘
Jermuk rises to 4000 feet above the sea; on the east a
narrow ridge 2800 feet high forms the watershed, with
steep eastern slopes falling towards Jordan. Immediately
west of the watershed are two small plateaus, covered with
basaltic debris, near el Jish and Kades. On the west are
rugged mountains with deep intricate valleys. The main
drains of the country are-first, Wâdy el 'Ayûn, rising north
of Jebel Jermûk, and running north-west as an open valley,
and secondly, Wâdy el Ahjâr, a rugged precipitous gorge
running north to join the Leontes, The district is well
provided with springs throughout, and the valleys are full
of water in the spring time. Though rocky and difficult,
Upper Galilee is not barren, the soil of the plateaus is rich,
and the vine flourishes in the higher hills, especially in the
neighbourhood of Kefr Birim. The principal town is Safed,
perched on a white mountain 2700 feet above the sea.
has a population of about 9000, including Jews, Christians,
and Moslems.. It is one of the four sacred cities in Pales-
tine revered by the Jews, to which nationality the majority
of the inhabitants belong. Among the smaller towus we
may notice Meirûn, near Safed, a place also much re-
vered by the Jews as containing the tombs of Hillel,
Shammai, and Simon bar Jochai. A yearly festival of most
curious character is here celebrated in honour of these rabbis.
The site of Hazor, one of the chief towns of Galilee in
Bible times, has also been lately recovered. It was situated,
according to Josephus, above the Lake Semechonitis (Bahr
el Hûleh), and the name Hudîreh, identical with the Hebrew

The antiquities of Galilee include cromlechs and rude
stone monuments, rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with
numerous remains of Byzantine monasteries and fine
churches of the time of the crusades. There are also re-
mains of Greek architecture in various places, but the most
interesting buildings are the ancient synagogues. These have
not been found in other parts of Palestine, but in Galilee
eleven examples are now known. They are rectangular, with
the door to the south, and three rows of columns forming
four aisles east and west. The architecture is a peculiar and
debased imitation of classic style, attributed by architects
to the 2d century of our era. The builder of the examples
at Kefr Birim, el Jish, and Meirûn is known to have been
the famous Simeon bar Jochai, who lived about 150 A.D.,
and built 24 synagogues in Galilee. The similarity of style
renders it probable that the other examples at Tell Hûm,
Kerâzeh, Nebartein, Umm el 'Amed, and Sufsâf were also
his work. Both at el Jish and at Kefr Birim there are two
synagogues, large and small. At Irbid, above Tiberias, is
another synagogue of rather different character, which is
said to have been built by Rabbi Nitai.
Traces of syna-
gogues have also been found on Carmel, and at Tireh, west
of Nazareth. It is curious to find the representation of
various animals in relief on the lintels of these buildings.
Hebrew inscriptions also occur, and the carved work of the
cornices and capitals is very rich. These synagogues were
erected at a time when the Galilean Jews were flourishing
under the Roman empire, and when Tiberias was the central
seat of Jewish learning and of the Sanhedrin.

In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Chris-
tian kingdom of Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly
protected by fortresses, the magnificent remains of which
still crown the most important strategical points. Toron
(now Tibnîn) was built in 1104, the first fortress erected by
the crusaders, and standing on the summit of the mountains
of Upper Galilee. Beauvoir (Kaukab, built in 1182) stood
on a precipice above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee,
and guarded the advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about
the same time Château Neuf (Hunîn) was erected above the
It Hûleh lake. Belfort (esh Shukîf), on the north bank of
the Leontes, the finest and most important, dates somewhat
earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el Kurn) stood on a narrow
spur north-east of Acre, completing the chain of frontier
fortresses. The town of Bânias, with its castle, formed also
a strong outpost against Damascus, and was the scene, in
common with the other strongholds, of many desperate
encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee
was the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the
Christians. In 1250 the knights of the Teutonic order
owned lands extending round Acre as far east as the Sea of
Galilee, and including Safed. These possessions were lost
in 1291, on the fall of Acre.
(C. R. C.)

been built in the Middle Ages; and above this a curious | rocky spur opposite Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings hillock, with an artificial rock-platform, called el 'Oreimeh, "the little knoll." Immediately to the north-east a precipice projects to the lake, and the aqueduct from the Tâbghah spring is led to an ancient rock-cut channel, which seems to have been once intended for a road in the face of the cliff. In the 17th century Quaresmius speaks of this place, Minyeh, as the site of Capernaum. In the 14th Isaac Chelo was apparently shown the same site as containing the tomb of Nahum, and as being the "city of the Minai." The "Minai," or "sorcerers," are mentioned in the Talmud, and by this title the Jews stigmatized the early Christians; and these "Minai" are called in one passage of the Talmud "sons of Capernaum." There is thus a close connexion between this Minyeh-named from the Minai-and the town of Capernaum. The position of the site is also suitable for that of Capernaum, being in the plain of Gennesareth, two miles from the "round spring," or fountain of Capharnaum. No other site of any importance exists in the plain of Geunesareth. See CAPERNAUM.

South of the plain of Gennesareth is the undisputed site of the New Testament town of Magdala. A few lotus trees and some rock-cut tombs are here found beside a miserable mud hamlet on the hill slope, with a modern tomb-house or kubbeh. Passing beneath rugged cliffs a recess in the hills is next reached, where stands Tabarîya, the ancient Tiberias or Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half of whom are Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, and now partly destroyed by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el 'Amr, as was the serai or court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were erected by his sons. There are remains of a crusading church, and the tomb of the celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town, while Rabbi Akiba and Rabbi Meir lie buried outside. The ruins of the ancient city, including granite columns and traces of a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards a mile beyond the modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought water a distance of 9 miles from the south.

Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a peninsula surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan, and by a broad water ditch, while on the north-west a narrow neck of land remains. The plateau thus enclosed is partly artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 feet above the water. A ruined citadel remains on the north-west, and on the east was a bridge over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of sculptured stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the description given by Josephus of the city of Tariches, which lay 30 stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities. Tarichea was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the cliffs, and partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a plain (the Ghôr). Pliny further informs us that Tariche was at the south end of the Sea of Galilee. Sinnabreh, a ruin on a spur of the hills close to the lastmentioned site, is undoubtedly the ancient Sinnabris, where Vespasian (Joseph., B. J., iii. 9, 7) fixed his camp, advancing from Scythopolis (Beisân) on Tariches and Tiberias. Sinnabris was 30 stadia from Tiberias, or about the distance of the ruin now existing.

The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully explored than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly recovered. The town of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, was situated 30 stadia from Tiberias, and 60 stadia from Gadara (Umm Keis). It is conjectured that the town Susitha, mentioned in the Talmud, is the same place, and the name Susyeh seems to have existed east of the Sea of Galilee at a late period. Susitha from "sus," meaning "horse," is, etymologically at least, suggestive of the Greek "hippos." The site is at present unknown. Kalat el Hosn (" castle of the stronghold ") is a ruin on a

remain, with traces of an old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong wall once surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the east where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the site on the north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut tombs are found beneath the ruin. This site answers to the description Josephus gives of Gamala, an important fortress besieged by Vespasian (Bell. Jud., iv. 1, 1). Gersa, an insignificant ruin north of the last, is thought to represent the Gerasa or Gergesa of the 4th century, situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill south of this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine "ran violently down a steep place" (Matt. viii. 32). The site of Bethsaida Julias, east of Jordan, is also unknown. It has een supposed (and the theory is supported by even so important an authority as Reland). that two separate places named Bethsaida are mentioned in the New Testament. The grounds for this conclusion are, however, very insufficient; and only one Bethsaida is mentioned by Josephus. It was near the Jordan inlet, on the east side of the river, and under its later Greek name of Julias, it is mentioned, with Hippos, by Pliny. The site usually pointed out is the ruin of et Tell, north of the Batîhah plain; the remains are, however, modern and insignificant. Just south of the same plain is a ruined village called Mes'aidîyeh, the name of which approaches Bethsaida in sound but not in meaning. This is the site pointed out by Vandevelde, and it is possible that the course of Jordan has shifted westwards, and that the old mouth is marked by the two creeks running into the shore on the east, in which case the site of Mes'aidîyeh might be accepted as the Bethsaida of the gospels, which appears to have been east of Jordan.

Literature. The most important works on the subject of Galilee and the Sea of Galilee are the following:-Robinson's Biblical Researches; Stanley's Sinai and Palestine; Tristram's Land of Israel; Warren and Wilson's Recovery of Jerusalem; Couder's Tent Work in Palestine; and the Memoirs of the Survey of Palestine (sheets 1-6, 8, 9). (C. R. C.)

The

GALILEO. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), one of the earliest and greatest of experimental philosophers, was born at Pisa, February 18, 1564. His father, Vincenzo, was an impoverished descendant of a noble Florentine house, which had exchanged the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the election, in 1343, of one of its members, Galileo de' Bonajuti, to the college of the twelve Buonuomini family, which was fifteen times represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier to Florence, flourished with the republic and declined with its fall. Vincenzo Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was a com petent mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on the theory and practice of music, and was especially dis tinguished amongst his contemporaries for the grace and skill of his performance upon the lute. By his wife, Giulia de' Ammannati of Pistoja, he had two sons, Galileo and Michelangiolo, and two daughters, Virginia and Livia. From his earliest childhood Galileo was remarkable for intellectual aptitude, as well as for mechanical invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of toy-machines, not the less original and ingenious that their successful working was usually much hindered by the scarcity of suitable materials. His application to literary studies was equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallombrosa, near Florence, where his education was principally con ducted, he not only made himself acquainted with the best Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of the Greek tongue, thus laying the foundation of the brilliant and elegant style for which his writings were afterwards distinguished. From one of the monks he also received instruction in logic, according to the system then in vogue; but the futilities of the science revolted, while its subtleties