and contraction caused by changes of solar heat. He contended that the ice, like the lead, is expanded by heat, and that, as it cannot on expansion move up the valley without overcoming the resistance of gravitation as well as of friction, it necessarily moves chiefly downward, in which direction gravitation co-operates. Contraction on the other hand must also tend to send the ice downward, for a larger part will move with the force of gravitation than against it. Dr Croll, objecting to Canon Mosely's views that no observed alternations of glacier temperature warrant the conclusion that the ice can be impelled downward by that cause, has proposed yet another explanation. He regards the motion of the ice of a glacier as molecular, resulting from the very conduction of heat through the mass of the glacier. He conteuds that from the thermal conditions of glacier-ice its molecules will melt before their temperature can be raised. Any given molecule on melting will transmit its extra heat or part of it to the next molecule, which in turn may melt, and thus a wave of thaw will travel through the ice. But as each molecule loses its heat again it freezes, and in the act of solidification exerts an enormous pressure on the walls of the interstice into which while fluid it entered. Hence in proportion to the amount of heat received by it the ice is subjected to great molecular pressure. As the glacier cannot expand laterally on account of the walls of its channel, and as gravitation opposes its expansion up the valley, it necessarily finds relief by a downward movement-the direction in which gravitation co-operates.

See De Saussure's Voyages dans les Alpcs, § 535; De Charpentier, Essai sur les Glaciers, 1841; Agassiz, Etudes sur les Glaciers, 1840, Système Glaciaire, 1847; L'Abbé Rendu, "Théorie des Glaciers de la Savoie," in Mem. Acad. Savoie, x., 1841, translated by G. Forbes and published 1875; J. D. Forbes, Travels in the Alps, 1843, Norway and its Glaciers, 1853, and Occasional Papers on Glaciers, 1859; Tyndall's Glaciers of the Alps, 1857; Mousson's Gletscher der Jetztzeit, 1854; Mosely, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1869; Croll, Climate and Time, 1875; J. Thomson, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1856–7.

GLADBACH, usually called BERGISCH-GLADBACH, a town of Prussia, circle of Mülheim, government district of Cologne, is situated 8 miles N.E. of the latter town. It possesses an iron foundry, and manufactories of paper, pasteboard, powder, percussion caps, nets, and machinery. Ironstone, peat, and lime are found in the vicinity. The population in 1875 was 7030.

GLADBACH, or MÖNCHEN-GLADBACH, a flourishing and rapidly increasing manufacturing town of Rhenish Prussia, capital of a circle in the government district of Düsseldorf, is situated 16 miles W.S.W. of the town of that name. It is one of the chief manufacturing seats of Rhenish Prussia, its principal industries being the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of silks, velvet, ribbons, and damasks, and dyeing and bleaching. There are also tanneries, tobacco manufactories, machine works, and foundries. The town possesses a chamber of commerce, a gymnasium, and a female school of the higher grade. There are an Evangelical and three Catholic churches, one of which possesses a choir of 1250, a nave dating from the beginning of the 12th century, and a crypt of the 8th century. Gladbach existed before the time of Charlemagne, and a Benedictine monastery was founded near it in 972 by Archbishop Gero of Cologne. The population in 1855 was only 4398; but it had increased in 1858 to 13,965, in 1861 to 17,074, in 1871 to 26,354, and in 1875 to 31,962. GLADIATORS, professional combatants with men or beasts in the Roman arena. That this form of spectacle, which is almost peculiar to Rome and the Roman provinces, was originally borrowed from Etruria ie shown by various indications. On an Etruscan tomb discovered at Tarquinii there is a representation of gladiatorial games; the slaves employed to carry off the dead bodies from the arena wore masks representing the Etruscan Charon; and we learn

from Isidore of Seville that the name for a trainer of gladiators, lanista, is an Etruscan word meaning butcher or executioner. These games are evidently a survival of the practice of immolating slaves and prisoners on the tomb of illustrious chieftains, a practice recorded in Greek, Roman, and Scandinavian legends, and traceable even as late as this century in the Indian suttee. Even at Romo they were for a long time confined to funerals, and henco the older name for gladiators was bustuarii; but in the later days of the republic their original significance was forgotten, and they formed as indispensable a part of the public amusements as the theatre or the circus. The first gladiators are said, on the authority of Valerius Maximus, to have been exhibited at Rome in the Forum Boarium 264 B.C., by Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the funeral of their father. On this occasion only three pairs fought, but the taste for these games spread rapidly, and the number of combatants grew apace. In 174 B.C. Titus Flamininus celebrated his father's obsequies by a three days' fight, in which 74 gladiators took part. Julius Cæsar engaged such extravagant numbers for his ædileship, that his political opponents took fright, and carried a decree of the senate imposing a certain limit of numbers; but notwithstanding this restriction he was able to exhibit no less than 300 couples. During the later days of the republic the gladiators were a constant element of danger to the public peace. The more turbulent spirits among the nobility had each his band of gladiators to act as a body guard, and the armed troops of Clodius, Milo, and Catiline played the same part in Roman history as the armed retainers of the feudal barons or the condottieri of the Italian republics.

Under the empire, notwithstanding sumptuary enactments, the passion for the arena steadily increased. Augustus, indeed, limited the shows to two a year, and forbade a prætor to exhibit more than 120 gladiators, yet allusions in Horace and Persius show that 100 pairs was the fashionable number for private entertainments; and in the Marmor Ancyranum the emperor states that more than 10,000 men had fought during his reign. The imbecile Claudius was devoted to this pastime, and would sit from morning till night in his chair of state, descending now and then to the arena to coax or force the reluctant gladiators to resume their bloody work. Under Nero senators and even wellborn women appeared as combatants; and Juvenal has handed down to eternal infamy the descendant of the Gracchi that appeared without disguise as a retiarius, and begged his life from the secutor, who blushed to conquer one so noble and so vile. Titus, whom his countrymen surnamed the Clement, ordered a show which lasted 100 days; and Trajan, in celebration of his triumph over Decebalus, exhibited 5000 pairs of gladiators. Domitian instituted venationes by torchlight, and at the Saturnalia of 90 A.D. arranged a battle between dwarfs and women, Even as late as 200 A.D. an edict was passed forbidding women to fight. How widely the taste for these sanguinary spectacles extended throughout the Roman provinces is attested by monuments, inscriptions, and the remains of vast amphitheatres. From Britain to Syria there was not a town of any size that could not boast its arena and annual games. The following inscription copied from the pedestal of a statue shows the important part they played in provincial life :-"In four days, at Minturne, he showed eleven pairs of gladiators, who did not cease fighting till one half, all the most valiant men in Campania, had fallen. You remember it well, noble fellow citizens." After Italy, Gaul, North Africa, and Spain were most famous for their amphitheatres; and Greece was the only Roman province where the institution never took root.

Gladiators were commonly drawn either from prisoners of war, or slaves, or criminals condemned to death. Thus

in the first class we read of tatooed Britons in their war chariots, Thracians with their peculiar bucklers and scimitars, Moors from the villages round Atlas, and negroes from central Africa, exhibited in the Colosseum. Down to the time of the empire only greater malefactors, such as brigands and incendiaries, were condemned to the arena; but by Caligula, Claudius, and Nero this punishment was extended to minor offences, such as fraud and peculation, in order to supply the growing demand for victims. For the first century of the empire it was lawful for masters to sell their slaves as gladiators, but this was forbidden by Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. Besides these three regular classes, the ranks were recruited by a considerable number of freedmen and Roman citizens who had squandered their estates, and voluntarily took the auctoramentum gladiatorium, by which for a stated time they bound themselves to the lanista. Even men of birth and fortune not seldom entered the lists, either for the pure love of fighting, or to gratify the whim of some dissolute emperor; and one emperor, Commodus, actually appeared in person in the arena. Gladiators were trained in schools (ludi) owned either by the state or by private citizens; and though the trade of a lanista was considered disgraceful, to own gladiators and let them out for hire was reckoned a legitimate branch of commerce. Thus Cicero, in his letters to Atticus, congratulates his friend on the good bargain he had made in purchasing a band, and urges that he might easily recoup himself by consenting to let them out twice. Men recruited mainly from slaves and criminals, whose lives hung on a thread, must have been more dangerous characters than modern galley slaves or convicts; and, though highly fed and carefully tended, they were of necessity subject to an iron discipline. In the school of gladiators discovered at Pompeii, of the sixty-three skeletons buried in the cells many were in irons. But hard as was the gladiator's lot, -so hard that special precautions had to be taken to prevent suicide,—it had its consolations. A successful gladiator enjoyed far greater fame than any modern prize-fighter or athlete. He was presented with broad pieces, chains, and jewelled helmets, such as may be seen in the museum at Naples; poets like Martial sang his prowess; his portrait was multiplied on vases, lamps, and gems; and high-born ladies contended for his favours. Mixed, too, with the lowest dregs of the city, there must have been many noble barbarians condemned to the vile trade by the hard fate of war. There are few finer characters in Roman history than the Thracian Spartacus, who, escaping with seventy of his comrades from the school of Lentulus at Capua, for three years defied the legions of Rome; and after Antony's defeat at Actium, the only part of his army that remained faithful to his cause were the gladiators whom he had enrolled at Cyzicus to grace his anticipated victory.

There were various classes of gladiators, distinguished by their arms or modes of fighting. The Samnites fought with the national weapons-a large oblong shield, a vizard, a plumed helmet, and a short sword. The Thraces had a small round buckler and a dagger carved like a scythe; they were generally pitted against the Mirmillones, so called from the fish (μopμúλos) which served as the crest of their helmet. In like manner the Retiarius was matched with the Secutor: the former had nothing on but a short tunic or apron, and sought to entangle his pursuer, who was fully armed, with the cast-net (jaculum) that he carried in his right hand; and if successful, he despatched him with the trident (tridens, fuscina) that he carried in his left. We may also mention the Andabatæ, who wore helmets with closed vizors; the Dimachæri of the later empire; the Essedarii, who fought from chariots like the ancient Britons; the Hoplomachi, armed like a Greek hoplite; and the Laqueatores, who tried to lasso their antagonists.

The estimation in which gladiatorial games were held by Roman moralists deserves notice, and the influence that they exercised upon the morals and genius of the nation. The Roman was essentially cruel, not so much from spite or vindictiveness, as from callousness and defective sympathies. This element of inhumanity and brutality must have been deeply ingrained in the national charbe no doubt that it was fed and fostered by the savage form which acter to have allowed the games to become popular, but there can their amusements took. That the sight of bloodshed provokes a love of bloodshed and cruelty is a commonplace of morals. To the horrors of the arena we may attribute in part, not only the brutal treatment of their slaves and prisoners, but the frequency careful not to exaggerate the effects or draw too sweeping inferof suicide among the Romans. On the other hand, we should be ences from the prevalence of this degrading amusement. Human nature is happily illogical; and we know that many of the Roman statesmen who gave these games, and themselves enjoyed these sights of blood, were in every other department of life irreproachable,-indulgent fathers, humane generals, and mild rulers of provinces. In the present state of society it is difficult to conceive how a man of taste can have endured to gaze upon a scene of human butchery. Yet we should remember that it is less than half a century since bear-baiting was prohibited in England, and we are only now attaining that stage of morality in respect of cruelty to animals that was reached in the 5th century, by the help of Christianity, in respect of cruelty to men. We shall not then be greatly surprised if hardly one of the Roman moralists is found to raise his voice against this amusement, except on the score of extravagance. Cicero, in a well-known passage commends the gladiatorial games as the best discipline against the fear of death and suffering that can be presented to the eye. The younger Pliny, who perhaps of all Romans approaches nearest to our ideal of a cultured gentleman, speaks approvingly of them. Aurelius, though he did much to mitigate their horrors, yet in his writings condemns the monotony rather than the cruelty. Seneca is indeed a splendid exception, and his letter to Lentulus is an eloquent protest against this inhuman sport. But it is without a parallel till we come to the writings of the Christian fathers, Tertullian, Lactantius, Cyprian, and Augustine. In the Confes sions of the last there occurs a narrative which is worth quoting as a proof of the strange fascination which the games exercised even on a religious man and a Christian. He tells us how his friend Alipius was dragged against his will to the amphitheatre, how he exciting crisis the shouts of the whole assembly aroused his strove to quiet his conscience by closing his eyes, how at some curiosity, how he looked and was lost, grew drunk with the sight of blood, and returned again and again, knowing his guilt yet unable to abstain. The first Christian emperor was persuaded to issue an edict abolishing gladiatorial games (325), yet in 404 we read of an exhibition of gladiators to celebrate the triumph of Honorius over the Goths, and it is said that they were not totally extinct in the West till the time of Theodoric (see GAMES). the finest pieces of ancient sculpture that has come down to us is Gladiators formed admirable models for the sculptor. One of the Wounded Gladiator of the National Museum at Naples. The so-called Fighting Gladiator of the Borghese collection, now in the Museum of the Louvre, and the Dying Gladiator of the Capitoline Museum, which inspired the famous stanza of Childe Harold, have ators, but warriors. been pronounced by modern antiquaries to represent, not gladi. In this connexion we may mention the admirable picture of Gérome which bears the title, Ave, Cæsar, morituri te salutant.

Marcus

The attention of archeologists has been recently directed to the tessera of gladiators. These tesseræ, of which about sixty exist in various museums, are small oblong tablets of ivory or bone, with an inscription on each of the four sides. The first line contains a name in the nominative case, presumably that of the gladiator; the second line a name in the genitive, that of the patronus or dominus; the third line begins with the letters SP, for spectatus or approved, which shows that the gladiator had passed his preliminary trials; this is followed by a day of a Roman month; and in the fourth line are the names of the consuls of a particular year.

Lipsius, Saturnalia, Wesel, 1675; Friedländer, Darstellungen aus der Bittengeschichte Roms, Leipsic, 1869, H. Goell, Kulturbilder aus Hellas und Rom, Leipsic, 1863; Charles Magnin, Les Origines du théâtre moderne, Paris, 1838; H. wallon, Histoire de l'esclavage, Paris, 1847; Guhl and Koner, The Life of the Greeks and Romans; Lecky, History of European Moralą, (F.S.)

GLADIOLUS, a genus of monocotyledonous or endogenous plants, belonging to the natural order Iridaceœ, and representative of the tribe Gladioleæ, a group of bulbous plants in which the perianth is irregular, and the stamens unilateral and arched, with the filaments free. It belongs to a subdivision of the Gladioleæ, in which the segments of the limb of the perianth are very unequal, and is specially distinguished by having the perianth tube curved, funnel

shaped, and widening upwards, and by the segments equalling or exceeding the tube in length. About ninety species are described, of which number upwards of fifty are from the Cape, and the rest from tropical Africa, the central and southern regions of Europe, Persia, the Caucasus, and the Levant. One species, G. illyricus, is found apparently wild in England, in the New Forest, Hampshire. Some of the species have been cultivated for a long period in our flower-gardens, where both the introduced specics and the modern varieties bred from them are very ornamental and popular. G. segetum has been cultivated since 1596, and G. byzantinus since 1629, while many additional species were introduced during the latter half of the 18th century. One of the earlier of the hybrids originated in gardens was the beautiful G. Colvilli, raised in the nursery of Mr Colvill of Chelsea in 1823 from G. concolor fertilized by G. cardinalis. In the first decade of the century, however, the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert had successfully crossed the showy G. cardinalis with the smaller but more free-flowering G. blandus, and the result was the production of a race of great beauty and fertility. Other crosses were made with G. tristis, G. oppositiflorus, G. hirsutus, G. alatus, and G. natalensis; but it was not till after the production of G. gandavensis about 1843, by the crossing of G. natalensis with G. oppositiflorus (sometimes erroneously attributed to natalensis and cardinalis), that the gladiolus may be said to have become a general favourite in gardens. Since that time the varieties have been greatly multiplied in number, and improved in size and quality, as well as marvellously varied in colour and marking, so that they have now become exceedingly popular. A few years since large numbers of novel varieties were annually introduced by the French florists, but the English-raised varieties are now in great measure superseding them. One cultivator, Mr Kelway of Langport, devotes a space of not less than 8 acres to gladioli, and cultivates annually from 10,000 to 60,000 each of some of the more popular kinds, while seedlings are raised to the extent of half a million a year. The seeds are sown in the open ground about April, glass culture with so large a number being out of the question; and in the first season the young plants make bulbs averaging the size of peas. The time occupied from the sowing of the seed until the plant attains its full strength is from three to four years. The approved sorts, which are identified by name, are multiplied by means of bulblets or offsets which form around the principal bulb or corm; but in this they vary greatly, some kinds furnishing abundant increase and soon becoming plentiful, while others persistently refuse to yield offsets. The stately habit and rich glowing colours of the modern gladioli render them exceedingly valuable as decorative plants during the late summer months. They are, moreover, very desirable and useful flowers for cutting for the purpose of room decoration, for while the blossoms themselves last fresh for some days, the undeveloped buds open in succession, if the stalks are kept in water, so that a cut spike will go on blooming for a considerable period.

GLAMORGAN (Welsh, Gwlad Morgan), a maritime county of South Wales, bounded on the N. by Brecknock and Carmarthen, on the W. by Carmarthen and its bay, on the S. by the Bristol Channel, and on the E. by Monmouth, the boundary line of which is the Rhymney. Its greatest length from E. to W. is about 53 miles, its greatest breadth from N. to S. about 29; its coast-line is about 60 miles, and its area 547,070 acres.

Glamorgan, with the exception of some flat tracts on the borders of the Bristol Channel, consists of a succession of hills and valleys, the country inland growing more and more mountainous, after a broad tract of plain on the south coast, until on the borders of Brecknock its surface is a sea of hills. None of the mountains rise to a great height, 10—: 2*

the most lofty, Mynydd Llangeinor, being but 1859 feet, and the escarpment of Craig y Llyn about the same height or a little higher. Yet their bold forms add grandeur to the scenery of the county, and their lower, slopes are clothed with picturesque though not large timber.

The valleys of Glamorgan have been long famous for great beauty of scenery. The vale of Glamorgan, some 8 miles in breadth, has been truly called the "Garden of Wales," and its climate is so mild that myrtles and other tender plants flourish in the open air. The vale of Neath is known to tourists as the waterfall district of South Wales, the finest falls being betwixt Hirwain and Neath, near the Vale of Neath Railway, viz. Cilhepstè fall, the three Clwngwyns, the falls of the Pyrddin, Scwd-Einon Gam, Scwd-Gladys, and Scwd Hen Rhydd on the Llech, with Melincourt and Abergarwedd still nearer Neath. The highest of these falls are above 80 feet. Swansea valley has also fine scenery. Other valleys are those of the Rhymney, the Taff, the Rhondda, and the Llwchwr, the first two giving their names to important railways. The rivers of Glamorgan are not large. The chief are the Rhymney, forming the county's eastern boundary; the Ogwr or Ogmore, which flows into the Bristol Channel uear Porth-Cawl harbour; the Taff, which rises in the Brecon Beacon, flows southward through the county, and forms the important harbour of Cardiff; the Neath and Tawe, flowing south into Swansea Bay; and the Llwchwr, which is the boundary of the county on the west, and, falling into Car marthen Bay, forms the estuary of the Burry river. The chief geological feature of Glamorgan is the Coalmeasures, which are of the greatest thickness near Neath, but extend nearly over the whole county, and are bounded by a narrow band of Millstone Grit and Mountain Limestone, nearly coincident with the county boundary on the north. In the extreme south and south-west the Devonian, Magnesian Limestone, and the Lias show themselves.

The climate is mild, and the plains on the coast as well as inland are very fertile. The soil is a deep rich loam, improved by lime. Agriculture is as yet not so forward as it might be with such a soil and climate; but the farms are seldom large, and the buildings are not suited to high farm. ing. The crops chiefly raised are wheat, beans, pease oats, barley, vetches, turnips, and potatoes. The cattle are of good useful breeds; and good sheep and ponies are reared in the hill-country. According to the agricultural statistics for 1878, the extent under the different crops (the total area being 547,070 acres), and the numbers of live-stock, were as follows:

Corn crops (two-thirds wheat and oats, and nearly one-third barley).........

Green crops (two-thirds turnips and swedes)................
Grass under rotation......

Permanent pasture.........

Bare, fallow, and uncropped arable land,.

Total under crops, bare fallow, and grass Live Stock:-Horses, including ponies........

Cattle...... Sheep. Pigs..

26,468 99 .186,697 33,359

According to the Owners and Heritages Return 187273, the county was divided among 8426 proprietors, holding 428,386 acres, with a gross estimated annual rental of £1,609,379. The estimated amount of commons and waste lands was 47,018 acres. Of the owners, 78.8 per cent. possessed less than one acre, and the average value per acre was £3, 1s. 81d. There were 16 proprietors holding 5000 acres and upwards, viz., C. R. M. Talbot' 33,920; Earl of Dunraven, 23,706; Marquis of Bute, 21,402; Lord Windsor, 12,016; Earl of Jersey, 7110; Edward Rees Wingfield, 6463; Lord Tredegar,