from the grammar school to the high school. The school was up to 1873 under the control of the corporation, but it was in that year placed under the jurisdiction of the school board of the city. In 1878 the school was removed to Elmbank Street, to the premises occupied by the Glasgow academy-a commodious building. The high school has been greatly improved by the school board, and is now one of the best secondary educational establishments in Scotland. It has upwards of 500 pupils. There are other secondary schools in Glasgow that are doing good educational work. Among these may be mentioned the Glasgow academy, the Kirklee academy, and the schools belonging to Hutcheson's hospital. There is also a Government school of design well attended, a technical school recently instituted, the mechanics' institution, founded in 1832, for the purpose of diffusing a knowledge of science among the working classes, the athenæum, which draws its students principally from the lower middle class, and the normal schools belonging to the Church of Scotland and the Free Church, for the training of teachers.

The passing of the Education (Scotland) Act in 1872 gave Glasgow an opportunity of dealing practically with the dense ignorance that prevailed within her boundaries. Before the Act passed it was believed that at least 20,000 (possibly far more) children in the city received no education whatever. The school board has persistently dealt with these uneducated waifs, and the most of this large ignorant mass have been reached. There are now not more than 3000 children of school age who are not receiving some education in the board and other schools. The school board rate in the city is 4d. per pound on the rental. The amount raised per annum is about £30,000.

Libraries, Museums, &c.—The libraries open to the public are Stirling's public library, a large collection of literature, and famous for its tracts of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the Mitchell public library, established a few years ago by the munificence of a citizen of Glasgow, who left about £80,000 for the purpose. This library is under the management of the town council, and during the short period of its existence has collected a large number of valuable books. It is meant to be a consulting library. The college library is very extensive, but can only be used by alumni of the university. An industrial museum was instituted some years ago in the old residential building of the West End Park. An addition was made to it about three years since, and the collection is now very considerable. It is supported under the Parks and Galleries Act, as are also the corporation galleries of art, a collection of pictures and statuary, acquired partly by purchase but more largely by donation and bequest. The galleries contain a very valuable series of old Dutch masters, and there is a noble statue of Pitt by Chantrey. The Hunterian and Andersonian museums are accessible to the public. The Hunterian contains a noble collection of anatomical subjects, and a most valuable assortment of coins. There is a botanical garden in Glasgow, but this has never been worthy of the city.

Theatres.-The drama has always been tolerably well patronized in Glasgow, which now contains some half dozen theatres.

Commercial Institutions.-The Chamber of Commerce was instituted in 1783, for the purpose of encouraging and protecting trade, and keeping a watchful eye on whatever might be supposed to affect the commercial interests of Glasgow and its neighbourhood. There are eight banks and branch banks in the city, two of them being properly Glasgow institutions; they are all joint-stock companies. In 1815 the first attempt was made in Glasgow to estabfish an institution for the accumulation of the savings of the community, the Provident Bank. This and some others of a like kind in 1836 were all merged in the National

Parks. The city is specially well provided with public parks, although not more than a quarter of a century bas elapsed since it possessed only one-Glasgow Green-a noble expanse along the north bank of the river, which was long neglected and uncared for. Since that time Kelvingrove Park, in the Kelvin valley at the west end of the city, was acquired, and laid out under the direction of Sir Joseph Paxton, and it has been frequently added to.' At a later date the Queen's Park, on the southern out skirts, was formed; and subsequently the city improvement trust expended £40,000 on the purchase and laying-out of the Alexandra Park on the north east side of the city. These parks are all liberally maintained by the parks and galleries trust of the town council.

Glasgow has been almost exclusively a commercial city within the last half century. As wealth increased culture also increased, though more slowly. The university has always been the centre of intelligence in the city, and many of its professors have been conspicuous for their devotion to the applications of pure science to the development of the arts and manufactures. Of the great names connected with this institution it may suffice to mention Baillie, whose letters on the troubles of the 17th century, recovered by the late Dr Laing of Edinburgh, added considerably to our knowledge of that period, and Professors Adam Smith and Thomas Reid. James Watt, though not a member of the university, was generously protected by it when the burgesses of Glasgow refused to allow him to open shop within the jurisdiction of the trudes house and magistratea of the city. There are many literary men, and poets of the minor class, who claim Glasgow as their birthplace, but none of them reached sufficient eminence to claim particulat notice. Of the practical workers who by their mechanical aptitude, amounting in many cases to genius, have pushed on the industries of the city, it is impossible here to give even meagre biographical details. The commercial capital of Scotland has prospered more by the general energy and indomitable perseverance of its inhabitants than by the special genius of individuals.

INDUSTRIES.-The most outstanding feature in the industrial position of Glasgow is the great variety and wide range of its manufacturing and trading activity. While no one of the great industries occupies a position of predominant importance so as to stamp itself as the peculiar characteristic of the town, been long established and are prosecuted on a great scale, while a there are numerous leading departments of industry which have variety of special manufactures have found their principal centre in Glasgow and the Clyde valley. When to this fact is added the consideration that Glasgow is one of the three principal seaports of the United Kingdom, it will at once be obvious that the wealth and prosperity of the city are contributed to by many separate and im portant streams. The circumstances and conditions which have favoured the establishment of the leading industries in Glasgow are quite as varied as are the industries themselves. The abundance of pure water in the hill streams around the city led at an early date to the introduction of bleaching, calico-printing, and allied pursuits; and these, in their turn, reacted favourably on hand-loom weaving and other textile manufactures. In a similar way the first begins nings of the now great chemical industries are clearly related to the early stages of the bleaching and printing trades. The fact, however, that the town is actually built within the richest coal and ironstone field in Scotland has had, of all causes, the most import ant influence in determining the current and prosperity of local industries. Further, the river Clyde, rendered navigable for vessels of the largest tonnage, flowing through the centre of that great coal and iron region, presents incomparable facilities for the prosecution of shipbuilding and marine engineering. But beyond the advantages of natural position and mineral wealth it is right to say that Glasgow owes much of her industrial prestige to a long line of highly-gifted, ingenious, sagacious, and energetic citizens, whoss influence has not only been stamped on local industries, but bas been felt and acknowledged throughout the entire world.

The principal industries of Glasgow range themselves under the

heads separately noted below. With respect to many of them it is a matter of regret that no trustworthy source of specific information exists; and thus the origin, vicissitudes, and progress of really important trades can only be recorded in vague and general terms. Textile manufactures.-The industries embraced under this head were the first which gave Glasgow a place among the great manufacturing communities; but though, through many changes and fluctuations, they continue to yield extensive employment, they how occupy a comparatively secondary position. In the cotton trade, which originated about 1780, Glasgow possesses several factories which are reckoned among the largest in the trade; the industry has, however, for a number of years been in a stationary if not declining condition. The manufacture of light textures has always been the leading feature of the Glasgow trade,-plain, striped, and figured muslins, ginghams, and fancy fabrics forming the staple. Thread manufacture, although specially a Paisley industry, is also extensively prosecuted in Glasgow. According to a return obtained in 1875 the whole cotton industry of Scotland afforded employment to 33,276 individuals, and excepting about 10 per cent. it was entirely centred in Glasgow and the surrounding district. Jute and silk are staples worked only to an inconsiderable extent in Glasgow, though about a century ago the manufacture of silk gauze flourished extensively, and has left traces of its former importance to the present day. The most characteristic of woollen and worsted manufactures is carpet weaving, all the leading kinds of carpets being extensively made, and the "tapestry "curtains and portieres made by several firms are examples of highly artistic woollen fabrics.

Bleaching, Printing, and Dyeing.-These allied industries took root in the Glasgow district at an earlier period than that of their introduction into the rival regions of Lancashire, calico-printing having been begun near Glasgow in 1738. The use of chlorine in bleaching was first introduced in Great Britain at Glasgow in 1787, on the suggestion of the illustrious James Watt, by his father-inlaw, a local bleacher; and it was a Glasgow bleacher-Charles Tennant-who first made and introduced bleaching powder (chloride of lime). The dyeing of Turkey red was begun as a British industry at Glasgow by two eminent citizens-David Dale and George M'Intosh-and that unequalled colour was long locally known as Dale's red. All these industries continue to hold a foremost place in Glasgow, a large amount of grey cloth being sent from the Lancashire looms to be bleached and printed in the Scotch works. In particular Turkey red dyeing and printing have developed to an extent unequalled in any other manufacturing centre.

Chemical Manufactures.-The operations of bleaching and calico printing in the early part of last century gave rise to such chemical inanufactures-the preparation of dye liquors, &c.-as these industries demand. The discovery of bleaching powder by Charles Tennant in 1799 led directly to the development of the great chemical works of C. Tennant & Co. at St Rollex and its various branches, and gave the first great impetus to chemical manufactures in Glasgow. Among the prominent chemical industries are to be reckoned the alkali trades-including sodą, bleaching powder, and soap-making the preparation of alum and prussiates of potash, bichromate of potash manufacture (an industry peculiarly identified with Glasgow), the extraction of iodine and other products from sea-weeds, dynamite and gun-powder manufacture, the making of flint glass, bottle glass, paper, white-lead and other pigments, and brewing and the distillation of spirits. The numerous chemical preparations used in the bleaching and calico-printing trades are also among the local manufactures, as well as the preparation of starch, British gum, and dextrine, and the manufacture of lucifer matches.

Iron Manufacture and other Metallurgical Industries.-Although the blast furnaces of Scotland are distributed over several of the midland counties, the great proportion of them are in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire, and the trade is entirely controlled and practically monopolized in Glasgow. The discovery of the value of blackband ironstone by Mushet and the invention of the hot-blast by Neilson were two events which exercised a wonderful influence on the development of iron smelting in Scotland. So rapid was the expansion of the industry during the earlier half of this century that in 1859 one-third of the whole iron produced in the United Kingdom was Scotch. For 20 years past the trade has shown little elasticity, the annual production averaging about a million of tons of pig iron,-the maximum output having been reached in 1870, when 1,206,000 tons were smelted. In 1877 of a total of 152 furnaces existing there were 109 in blast, and of the whole 131 were situated in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire, 102 of these being in operation. The entire output of pig iron in that year was 982,000 tons, while in 1878 from 90 furnaces in blast the production is estimated at 902,000 tons. The number of malleable iron works in Glasgow and its neighbourhood is 22, having had during 1877 345 puddling furnaces and 53 rolling mills in operation. Mild steel is manufactured on an extensive scale by the Siemens-Martin process, and a small amount of crucible cast steel is also made. Other metallurgical industries include the extraction of copper by Henderson's wet process, and a limited amount of zinc smelting. Engineering.-With abundance of iron and coal, and great

facilities of both land and water carriage, it is only to be expectel that mechanical engineering should be carried on in Glasgow with peculiar energy and success. Almost all departments of engineering work are well represented in the district; and among the speci features of the industries may be enumerated the great water and gas pipe casting establishments, sanitary and general iron-foundir, malleable iron tube making, locomotive engine building, the manu facture of sugar machinery and of sewing machines,-two great establishments on the model of American factories for the latter trade being conducted by the Singer and the Howe Machine Companies respectively. The marine engineering works of the Clyde...... which in many instances are worked in direct connexion with shipbuilding yards-are equipped on a scale worthy of the great industry of which they form an important part; and few establishments exist in any other quarter capable of producing the enormous forgings for propeller shafts, &c., of ocean steamers, which form a regular item in the undertakings of Glasgow engineering firms. Shipbuilding is the greatest of all the modern industries of Glasgow, and the position attained by the shipbuilders of the Clyde is a matter of imperial consequence and national pride. The shipbuilding yards of the Clyde extend from Rutherglen above Glasgow to Greenock,-Dumbarton, Port Glasgow, and Greenock having an important stake in the industry. In some years about half the total tonnage built in the United Kingdom has been launched from the Clyde yards, as is shown by the following statement :—

During the year 1878 the tonnage launched on the Clyde from the yards of 35 different firms amounted to 222,853 tons, one vessel, the "Gallia," built for the Cunard Company, being of 5200 tons burthen,-a tonnage, however, which has been exceeded by the Guion steamer "Arizona" (5500 tons), launched in 1879. The work turned out is very diversified, but as a rule of the highest class, and includes armour-plated and other vessels for the Royal Navy, mail and passenger ocean steamers for the great Transatlantic and other lines, river steamboats famous throughout the world for swiftness and elegance of appointments, merchant sailing vessels, dredging plant, and hopper barges. With the exception of a very insignificant proportion of wooden vessels, the whole of the shipping built on the Clyde is of iron and steel, the latter having recently been introduced with great success. The shipbuilding trade in Glasgow indeed owes its extraordinary expansion almost entirely to the rapid supplanting of wood by iron as a building material. Twenty years ago, in 1859, the tonnage launched measured only 35,709 tons, from which amount, by rapid strides, it reached in 1863 a total of 123,262 tons, and in 1874 the maximum amount of 262,430 tons was floated off.

COMMERCE. For a century past the records of the Clyde Navigation Trust indicate that the trade of Glasgow, so far as regards shipping, has progressed, with few and unimportant fluctuations, with steady rapidity. In 1778 the annual revenue of the Clyde Trust was £1733; in 1828 it amounted to £17,669, a tenfold increase in 50 years; and in 1878 the total amounted to £217,100. Of course these figures do not necessarily indicate a corresponding expansion of shipping trade, though they probably bear a close relation to the comparative value of cargoes carried. In the year 1828 the tonnage of vessels of all kinds which arrived in the harbour of Glasgow was 696,261, the sailing vessels having numbered 4405 of 214,315 tons, and the steamers 7100 of 481,946 tons. For the year ending 30th June 1878 the arrivals of sailing ships numbered 2727, with 457,290 tons capacity, and of steamers there were 13,210, the tonnage of which amounted 2,154,733 tons,-in all 15,937 arrivals with a gross tonnage of 2,612,023 tons, being the greatest amount on record. In that year the weight of goods imported from abroad was 658,319 tons; and coastwise 586,576 tons were landed at Glasgow, making in all 1,244,895 tons. The foreign imports consisted in largest measure of Indian corn, wheat, flour, and other food substances, with timber, pyrites, iron ore, and sulphur, the coasting arrivals containing principally limestone, iron, cement, potter's clay, salt, timber, and food stuffs. The goods shipped to foreign ports amounted to 712,249 tons, and coastwise 603,374 tons left Glasgow, making in all 1,315,623 tons. The principal exports were coal, iron, cast pipes, chairs and other railway iron, chemical manufactures, and general machinery, with malt liquors and spirits; and in the coasting trade the leading articles were of a similar general description. The great bulk of the foreign trade is with New York and Canadian ports, India, France, Spain, and Belgium; and coasting traffic beyond the Clyde estuary is directed principally to Liverpool, Belfast, Dublin, Londonderry, Waterford, Bristol, and London; but there are few commercial ports throughout the world which have not more or less direct trading communication with the port and harbour of (J. H. S.-J. PA.) Glasgow.

THE

HISTORY.

HE art of glass-making, unlike that of pottery, would appear not to have been discovered and practised by different nations independently, but to have gradually spread from a single centre. No trace of it was observed among the inhabitants of America at the time when that continent was discovered, although considerable progress in the arts had been made by some among them, e.g., the Mexicans and Peruvians; but the steps by which it reached China may be indicated with much probability. The credit of the invention was given by the ancients to the Phoenicians, as is shown by the well-known story of its fortuitous discovery by Phoenician merchants, who rested their cooking pots on blocks of natron (sub-carbonate of soda), and found glass produced by the union under heat of the alkali and the sand of the shore (Pliny, Nat. Hist., xxxvi. 26, 65). A glassy mass may, however, be produced in the smelting of many metallic ores, silica being present, while the fuel supplies the alkali; or by the combustion of great masses of reeds or straw, in which the elements of glass are present,-lumps of coarse imperfect glass being often found on the spot where a stack of wheat has been burned. Now the Egyptians practised metallurgic operations from a very early period, and vast heaps of straw are, and no doubt have been from the earliest times, accumulated in that country, and probably not unfrequently set on fire. The adoption of glass as a substance capable of being mide subservient to the use of mankind may therefore be due to the intelligence of some one who noticed its fortuitous production there. Be this as it may, by far the earliest examples of glass existing of which the dates are attested by inscriptions are of Egyptian origin. The earliest of these, a small lion's head of opaque blue glass of very fine colour, but changed externally to an olive green, was found at Thebes by Signor Drovetti, and is now in the British Museum; on the underside are hieroglyphics containing the name of Nuantef IV., whose date according to Lepsius's chronology was 2423-2380 B.C. A bead of dusky green glass bears the prænomen of Hatasu, a queen who is conjectured to have lived about 1450 B. C. (Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 88). That such may be the real dates of these objects is confirmed by the fact that glass bottles containing red wine are represented on monuments of the fourth dynasty, more than 4000 years old; and in the tombs at Beni Hasan, dating from the reign of Usurtesen I., at least 2000 years B.C., the process of glass-blowing is represented in an unmistakable manner (Wilkinson, vol. iii. p. 89). Very many examples of glass found in Egypt may be seen in museums, but, as they rarely bear inscriptions, it would be difficult to trace the progress of the art through them; no competent person has hitherto undertaken the task. The manufacture probably continued to flourish as well during the period of the native monarchy as in that of the Greek dynasty; and its importance after the subjugation of the country to Rome was probably even increased by the new market then opened to its products. Martial (Ep., xxi. 74) alludes to the importation of Egyptian glass into Rome; and it is mentioned in an ordinance of Aurelian

1

Hadrian in a letter addressed to the consul Servianus men

tions glass-blowing as one of the chief industrial occupations

lower Diospolis on Lake Mensaleh, as appears by a passage in the Periplus Maris Erythræi (c. 6).

Much of the Egyptian glass was uncoloured and of a somewhat dusky hue; of the coloured and ornamental varieties perhaps the most characteristic examples are the small vases usually in the form of either alabastra or amphora, but occasionally in that of an Egyptian column. In these the prevailing colour is a deep transparent blue; but not unfrequently the colour of the body of the vase is some shade of pale buff, fawn, or white (an imitation probably of arragonite, Egyptian alabaster), sometimes deep green, and in rare cases red. In almost every example the surface is ornamented by bands of colour, white, yellow, or torquoise blue, forming zigzag lines; in some examples there are only two or three such lines, in others the whole surface is covered by them. These lines are incorporated with the surface of the vessel, but do not penetrate through its entire thickness. By the Greeks and Etruscans such vessels were evidently much valued; the amphora have been occasionally found in tombs, furnished with a stand of gold. In Rhodes and elsewhere they have been found associated with objects which probably do not date from an earlier period than the 3d or 4th century before Christ, and it does not appear that they are met with in tombs later than the Christian era; when coloured or ornamental glass vessels are discovered in these last, they are of a different character. Another species of glass manufacture in which the Egyptians would appear to have been peculiarly skilled is the so-called mosaic glass, formed by the union of rods of various colours in such a manner as to form a pattern; the rod so formed was then reheated and drawn out until reduced to a very small size, a square inch or less, and divided into tablets by being cut transversely, each of these tablets presenting the pattern traversing its substance and visible on each face. This process was no doubt first practised in Egypt, and is never seen in such perfection as in objects of a decidedly Egyptian character in design or in tural character are met with, which probably once served colour. Very beautiful pieces of ornament of an architecas decorations of caskets or other small pieces of furniture, Some of the last-named are represented with such truth of or of trinkets; also tragic masks, human faces, and birds. colouring and delicacy of detail that even the separate feathers of the wings and tail are well distinguished, although, as in an example in the British Museum, a humanheaded hawk, the piece which contains the figure may not Works of this description probably long to the period exceed three-fourths of an inch in its largest dimension. when Egypt passed under Roman domination, as similar objects, though of inferior delicacy, appear to have been

made in Rome.

The Phoenicians probably derived their knowledge of the art from Egypt; whether this be so or not, they undoubtedly practised it from a very early period and to a very large extent. Probably much the same processes were employed in Phoenicia and Egypt during some centuries before the Christian era, as they certainly were in Phoenicia, Egypt, and Rome for some centuries after. It seems probable that the earliest products of the industry of Phoenicia in the art of glass-making are the coloured beads which have other parts of Asia, and in Africa. The "aggry" beads, so been found in almost all parts of Europe, in India and much valued by the Ashantees and other natives of that part of Africa which lies near the Gold Coast, have pro

opaque glass; they exhibit great variety of colour and

pattern, and very different degrees of skill in manipulation. Their wide dispersion may be referred with much probability to their having been objects of barter between the Phoenician merchants and the barbarous inhabitants of the various countries with which they traded. It is probable, however, that many of the specimens which exist in our museums date from times several centuries later than those in which Tyre and Sidon flourished; for, as we may learn from the Periplus and Strabo, glass in various forms was an article imported in the 1st and 2d centuries, as well into the emporia of the Red Sea as into the ports of Britain. Even at the present day beads are very extensively made at Venice for export to Africa, which bear a resemblance, doubtless not accidental, to those which we have reason to believe to be of very early date.

Next in date to the earlier Egyptian examples mentioned above would appear to be the vase of transparent greenish glass found in the north-west palace of Nineveh, and now in the British Museum. On one side of this a lion is engraved, and also a line of cuneiform characters, in which is the name of Sargon, king of Assyria, 722 B.C. Frag ments of coloured glasses were also found there, but our materials are too scanty to enable us to form any decided opinion as to the degree of perfection to which the art was carried in Assyria. Many of the specimens discovered by Layard at Nineveh have all the appearance of being Roman, and were no doubt derived from the Roman colony, Niniva Claudiopolis, which occupied the same site.

The Greeks, excellent in the ceramic art, do not appear to have cultivated the art of glass-making at a very early period; but it was probably made in many places on the shores of the Mediterranean for some centuries before the Christian era. At Mycenae many disks of opaque vitreous pastes were found by Schliemann, and very similar objects at Ialyssus in Rhodes; but it is not certain that these may not have been brought from Egypt, where very similar objects have been found, or whether they ought not to be attributed to Greek or to Phoenician artisans. At Camirus in Rhodes, however, many vessels of glass of very elegant forms have been discovered, which were probably made in the island.

In Etruscan tombs in Italy are also found glass vessels of peculiar character; these are small bowls resembling in form the half of an egg; they are usually of the variety of glass which is mentioned further on as "madrepore," the ground green and transparent, the stars yellow, while patches of colour of gold and of filigree glass are sometimes interspersed. They differ from and appear to be earlier than the madrepore glass, fragments of which are so often found in Rome. They are also said to be found in Magna Græcia. Another variety found in tombs in the same district is of blue and opaque glass, with much gold in leaf, all twisted together; the most frequent form in which this kind of glass has been found is that of a bottle several inches long and about one inch in diameter, without a neck, having probably had a mounting of gold. It remains to be determined whether these should be attributed to a Greek or to a Phoenician origin. Glass, however, was occasionally used for purposes of architectural decoration during the best period of Grecian art, for Stuart and Revett, when describing the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, give the following note:-"A remarkable singularity observed in the capitals of this portico is in the plaited torus between the volutes having been inlaid at the interstices with coloured stones or glass." Mr H. March Phillips states that he well remembers having remarked these decorations, and that he believes them to be of blue glass.1

1 An example of the employment of glass in a like manner is indicated by the odd story which Pliny tells (Nat. Hist., xxxvii. 5, 17) at on the tomb of Hermias, a prince of the island of Cyprus,

In the first centuries of our era the art of glass-making was developed at Rome and other cities under Roman rule in a most remarkable manner, and it reached a point of excellence which in some respects has never been excelled or even perhaps equalled. It may appear a somewhat exaggerated assertion that glass was used for more purposes, and in one sense more extensively, by the Romans of the imperial period than by ourselves in the present day; but it is one which can be borne out by evidence. It is tru that the use of glass for windows was only gradually ex tending itself at the time when Roman civilization sauk under the torrent of German and Hunnish barbarism, and that its employment for optical instruments was only known in a rudimentary stage; but for domestic purposes, for architectural decoration, and for personal ornaments glass wat unquestionably much more used than at the present day. It must be remembered that the Romans possessed no fine porcelain decorated with lively colours and a beautiful glaze; Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery which was then made. Coloured and ornamental glass held among them much the same place for table services, vessels for toilet use, and the like, as that held among us by porcelain Pliny (Nat. Hist., xxxvi. 26, 67) tells us that for drinking vessels it was even preferred to gold and silver. Trebellius Pollio, however, relates of the emperor Gallienus that he drank from golden cups, despising glass, than which, he said, nothing was more vulgar. Glass was largely used in pave. ments, and in thin plates as a coating for walls. It was used in windows, though by no means exclusively, mica, alabaster, and shells having been also employed. Glass, in flat pieces, such as might be employed for windows, has been found in the ruins of Roman houses, both in England and in Italy, and in the house of the faun at Pompeii a small pane in a bronze frame remains. Glass of this description seems to have been cast on a stone, and is usually very uneven and full of defects; although capable of transmitting light, it must have given at best an indifferent view of external objects. When the window openings were large, as was the case in basilicas and other public buildings and even in houses, the pieces of glass were, doubtless, fixed in pierced slabs of marble or in frames of wood or bronze.

The invention and ingenuity employed by the Roman artisans in producing variety in glass vessels are most re markable; almost every means of decoration appears to have been tried, and many methods of manipulating glass, which have been considered inventions, have in reality been anticipated by the glass-workers of the period under consideration. The fertility of invention which devised so many modes of ornamentation and so many shades of colour, and the skill with which the manual execution is carried out, alike deserve great admiration. This prodigious variety seems to show that glass-making was at that time carried on, not as now in large establishments, which pro duce great quantities of articles identical in form and pattern, but by many artificers, each working on a small scale. This circumstance enables us to understand why very pure and crystalline glass was, as Pliny tells us, more valued than any other kind. To produce glass very pure and free from striæ and bubbles, long-continued fusion is required; this the system of working of the ancients did not allow, and their glass is in consequence remarkable for the great abundance of bubbles and defects which it contains.

was a marble figure of a lion with eyes of emerald which shone so brightly into the sea that they frightened away the tunnies from the adjacent fisheries, so that it became necessary to change the eyes. In the great marble lion discovered by Mr Newton near Cnidus, and now in the British Museum, in the place of the eyes are deep sockets which probably, like those of the Cypriote lion, were filled with coloured glass.

but several specimens have been recently described which can leave no doubt on the point; decisive examples are afforded by two cups found at Vaspelev, in Denmark, engravings of which are published in the Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndeghed for 1861, p. 305. These are small cups, 3 inches and 2 inches high, 3 inches and 3 inches and a bull, on the lesser two birds with grapes, and on each some smaller ornaments. On the latter are the letters DVB. R. The colours are vitrified and slightly in relief 1 green, blue, and brown may be distinguished. They were found with Roman bronze vessels and other articles. Vessels also are not uncommon on the surface of which enamel colours appear in the form of spots; it is probable that these were applied in the form of melted glass, not, as in true enamel painting, in that of a finely divided powder tempered with an essential oil and applied cold.

These combinations of colour were effected in two ways: -first, by glasses of two or more .colours being combined so as to traverse the entire substance of the object; and, secondly, by the superposition of the one colour on the other.

To the former class belong all those termed mosaic and mille fiori, where the process of manufacture was the preliminary union, by heat, of threads of glass into a rod, which when cut transversely exhibited the same pattern in every section. Such rods were placed together side by side, and united by heat into a mass which was then formed into cups or other vessels. A vast quantity of small cups and pateras were made by this means in patterns which bear considerable resemblance to the surfaces of madrepores, and are of the same kind as those which by the Venetians are termed "mille fiori." In these every colour and every shade of colour seem to have been tried in great variety of combination with effects more or less pleasing, but transparent violet or purple appears to have been the most common ground colour. Although most of the vessels of this mille fiori glass were small, some were made of large size; a fragment in the possession of the present writer must have formed part of a dish not less than 20 inches in diameter. Another variety of glass, evidently much used, is that in which transparent brown glass is so mixed with opaque white and blue as to resemble onyx. This was sometimes done with great success, and very perfect imitations of the natural stone were produced. Sometimes purple glass is used in place of brown, probably with the design of imitating the precious murrhine. Imitations of porphyry, of serpentine, and of granite are also met with, but these were used chiefly in pavements, and for the decoration of walls, for which purposes the onyx-glass was likewise employed. Under this head must also be included the interlacing of bands and threads both of white and of coloured glass. Vessels are found composed of bands either so placed in sections as to present a plaited pattern, or simply arranged side by side; others, again, resemble the Venetian vitro di trina, threads of opaque white or yellow glass being twisted with clear transparent glass, and the vessel then formed by the welding together of the rods so made. Blue threads are occasionally intermixed, and several varieties of pattern may be found; but this branch of the art does not appear to have been carried by the Romans to anything like the perfection to which it was afterwards brought by the Venetians.

So few examples of glass vessels of this period which have been painted in enamel have come down to us that

The first place among those processes in which one colour was superimposed on another may be given to that by which the cameo glass was produced. In this a bubble of opaque white glass was formed at the end of the tube used by the glass-blower; this was coated with transparent blue, and that again with opaque white, and the vessel required was formed from this threefold globe. The outer coat was then removed from that portion which was to constitute the ground, leaving the white for the figures, foliage, or other ornamentation; these were then sculptured by means of the gem-engraver's tools. Pliny no doubt means to refer to this when he says (Nat. Hist., xxxvi. 26, 66), "aliud argenti modo cælatur," contrasting it with the process of cutting glass by the help of a wheel, to which he refers in the words immediately preceding, "aliud torno teritur."

The famous Portland or Barberini vase is the finest example of this kind of work which has come down to us. and was entire until it was broken into some hundred pieces by a drunken medical student some years ago. The pieces, however, were joined together by Mr Doubleday with extraordinary skill, and the beauty of design and execution may still be appreciated almost as well as when it was intact. A letter written by Wedgwood in 1786 to Sir William Hamilton has been published in the life of the former by Miss Meteyard (vol. ii. p. 577), which contains some interesting remarks upon this beautiful work of art. He concludes with the assertion, "I do not think £5000 for the execution of such a vase, supposing our best artists capable of such a work, would be at all equal to their gains from the works they are now employed in." It is true that the gem-engravers of that day received very high pay for their work.

The two other most remarkable examples of this cameo glass are an amphora at Naples and the Auldjo vase. The amphora measures 1 foot inch in height, 1 foot 7 inches in circumference; it is shaped like the earthen amphoras with a foot far too small to support it, and must no doubt have had a stand, probably of gold; the greater part is covered with a most exquisite design of garlands and vines, and two groups of boys gathering and treading grapes and playing on various instruments of music; below these is a line of sheep and goats in varied attitudes. The ground is blue and the figures white. It was found in a house in the Street of Tombs at Pompeii in the year 1839, and is now in the Royal Museum at Naples. It is well engraved in Richardson's Studies of Ornamental Design. The Auldjo vase, a part of which is or was in possession of Mr Auldjo, and another in the British Museum, is an cnochoe about 9 inches high; the ornament consists mainly of a most beautiful band of foliage, chiefly of the vine, with bunches of grapes; the ground is blue and the ornaments white;