deposits or layers of shale of decidedly Permian age and yielding a few characteristic remains generally very much distorted. The upper seam of limestone is a magnesian rock, yielding on analysis about 40 per cent. of carbonate of magnesia and 55 per cent. of lime. The lower limestone on the contrary is of carboniferous origin and consists of thick blocks containing at least 90 per cent. of carbonate of lime, separated by thin layers of red shale. The general dip of the strata is to the N.E. at an angle of 10°. The interest attached to this exposure arises in a great measure from the mineralogical nature of the rocks which vary so much in colour and general appearance from those previously described. Indeed, but for the organic remains entombed we might almost imagine that by some means or other we had wandered into and were examining a Permian exposure in Durham, though the subordinate mammillary or botryoidal concretions so commonly and typically exhibited

An excellent exposure occurs at Kellhead, a little to the north-east of Annan where there is an outcrop about 50 feet thick on the top of a hill or ridge overlooking the Solway Firth. This place is certainly worthy of a visit, not for the sake of its geological interest alone, but also for the commanding view of the surrounding district which can be obtained from it. Nor is it possible to find a better or more typical example of the true "Mountain Limestone" in respect of its physical aspect, and a day spent in and about this quarry and hill will do more to impress upon the mind the distinctive features of the formation than weeks of reading or class-room work. The red colour still prevails, but the rock in many parts is very friable, owing to the fact that it is chiefly made up of Encrinites, held together by a binding of clayey-looking lime. Want of space prevents us from describing at length the various remains found at Kellhead, and for the present we must only name those which occur most abundantly and perfect in this very interesting

Fig. 52.-Map of Dumfries District, showing Limestone

exposures.

there are entirely absent in the rocks under our notice. The fossils, however, soon show the true nature of the deposit and all doubt is quickly dissipated by the presence of Productus giganteus and P. semireticulatus. These characteristic fossils are very common and fairly perfect, but other species, Zaphrentis, Euomphalus, Bellerophon, and Spirifera are rare, badly preserved, and their identification is often a matter of considerable difficulty.

Better exposures are found further north at New Cumnock, near Muirkirk, in which locality the carboniferous limestone is very extensively quarried. The total depth of rock obtained here is 70 feet, while the colour is again of the red tint imparted to it by its proximity to magnesian strata. The fossil list is a fairly long one and the diligent student should have no difficulty in obtaining from the various quarries of the immediate neighbourhood satisfactory specimens of Orthis resupinata, Productus semireticulatus, Rhynchonella pugnus, Spirifera bisulcata, S. glabra, Bellerophon urii, Poteriocrinus crassus (parts), Lithostrotion irregulare, Cyathophyllum turbinatum, Athyris roysii, A. ambigua.

Fig. 53.-Euomphalus pentangulatus.

Fig. 54.-Rhynchonella pleurodon.

quarry. Productus giganteus are again numerous, and owing to the soft nature of the rock are not difficult to extract. Euomphalus pentangulatus appear very perfect and in diameters varying from 1 inches to 3 inches, while Bellerophon urii, and Nautilus dorsalis are also frequently found indeed; the writer remembers seeing, nine years ago, a garden walk adjoining one of the workmen's houses almost paved with them. The siphuncled and chambered Cephalopod, orthoceras is present in two or three species ranging from 24 inches to almost 5 feet in length.

Compared with the Carboniferous limestone of England, we cannot help being struck with the many points of contrast rather than of agreement which present themselves to our notice. In the Carboniferous limestone of Scotland the beds and quarries are by comparison poor in respect of depth or thickness, and this is the chief reason why so many of them have been and are being abandoned. Wherever the beds dip at an inconvenient angle, it is unremunerative to follow them into the earth. And with regard to organisms too, there is a remarkable paucity of species, while even such as are to be found are generally far behind their southern contemporaries in regard to symmetry of form and state of preservation.

IT

CONCERNING MARIGOLDS.

T is curious to notice the tendency of late years towards the planting of yellow or orange flowers in English gardens. A railway journey round any London suburb will illustrate this: the little back gardens in the dingier streets are often ablaze with sunflowers, and cottage gardens in purer air follow suit. The marigold, under one or other of its varieties, seems to be an especial favourite, and that not in our own country alone. Cross to France and you will find the common orange one figuring as a pot. herb, and its petals introduced under the name of "soucis" into your soup. In the Channel Isles the same use is made of it, and it is so nearly wild as to be seen growing in waste places or by roadsides, while children make wreaths of the flowers to adorn the "cheap tripper" as he rides in the "cars" round the island. It's a pity that such a flower should be so vulgarised.

But truth to tell, it has a certain tendency towards gaudiness, a sort of rollicking behaviour, arising from its rapid growth and sprawling habit (I speak of the common, juicy kinds), which causes one to banish it from one's choicest flower-beds, and to relegate it to the shrubbery or to the kitchen-garden. It has some tendency to become a weed, and is treated as such. But for getting rapidly a blaze of colour with plenty of luscious green to back it up, for covering square yards of unsightly soil or rubbish-heap, commend me to our friend marigold. It is sensitive to light, like many of its comrades in the great composite family, and ere the dew falls shuts its yellow eyes, as if it were a magnified, glorified daisy.

One variety which is now before me, seems to illustrate Mr. Grant Allen's theory of the develop. ment of colour, for its ray-florets-the outer circlebesides doubling or semi-sterilising themselves, have attained a broad stripe of yellowish white up each strap-shaped corolla, the original orange being relegated to a tiny margin up each side, producing in the whole flower-head the prettiest effect. An even more refined member of the genus is the little French marigold with its stiff, slender branching stem and delicate, strongly-scented, pinnate leaves. This kind seems to be aiming at a further stage in colouring, for it is striped with dark brown, which, I take it, is only red overlaid with orange. Sometimes the disc-florets of the common kinds take on this brown velvety tint, as if they were aping their big kinsfolk, the sunflowers.

Side by side with these tiny flowers gardeners have produced those huge, unwieldy, double marigolds, which send up a juicy stem-admirable pasture for slugs and snails-crowned with a solid mass of glaring orange or sickly yellow flowers; no shape, no beauty, that I can see, though I have known the flower-heads used effectively in harvest decorations. Still, they always remind me of the rosettes seen

sometimes on horses' heads, or of the favours worn at elections.

The scent of the marigold is not at all unpleasant; it resides chiefly in the leaves and stalks; but the stickiness (doubtless a protection against undesirable insect visitors) of the common kinds makes the gathering of a posy a disagreeable operation. The juice has its virtues, for have we not in our pharmacopoeia "Calendula," of healing virtue to wounds of the skin? Lastly, the name is a sweet reminder of the Blessed Woman to whom so many of our English flowers are dedicated, and in whose honour this sojourner bears its English name.

AD

M. E. POPE.

NOTES ON NEW BOOKS.'

DS IN PRACTICAL GEOLOGY, by Grenville A. J. Cole (London: Charles Griffin & Co.). This is a most valuable and very welcome book to geological students. The subject is treated on lines wholly different from those in any other manual, and the book is, therefore, very original. Indeed, it should really be considered rather in the light of a companion vol. to the higher class of geological text-books. A large space is devoted to the best and readiest methods of examining minerals, both with the wet and dry processes; how to examine rocks and rock-structures physically and chemically; whilst the concluding part is devoted to the examination and determination of fossils. There are twenty-eight chapters altogether, and one hundred and thirty-six illustrations, mostly of fossils. We cordially commend Professor Cole's book to all zealous students of geology.

The Geology of the Country around Liverpool, including the North of Flintshire, by G. H. Morton (London: Geo. Philip & Son). Twenty-eight years ago Mr. Morton wrote a small book on this subject, which was much welcomed by field-geologists, inasmuch as it was the result of personal observation and exploration. Moreover, the author was well known as an accurate, able, and painstaking geologist. Since that period other equally able geologists have explored the same area, and Mr. Morton has himself, of course, added considerably to the subject. The result is the publication of the present well-printed and neatly got up volume; it is modestly entitled a Second Edition, but it is in reality a larger and altogether differently got up book, illustrated by twenty plates and fifteen woodcuts of sections, &c. We congratulate Mr. Morton on the excellent work he has turned out.

The magnificently got up vols. of the United States Geological Survey are always welcome to English geologists, to whom they are presented with a generosity which is in striking contrast to the

niggardliness with which the equally valuable memoirs of our own Geological Survey are sent out (or rather not sent out) for press notices. These American volumes are aided by the best of illustrations and maps. The paper is good and hotpressed; the type large, clear, and bold; so that it is a pleasure to turn over the pages.

The Ninth Annual Report of the U.S. Geol. Survey. for 1887-88 is a large volume of over 700 pp., and contains lengthy papers, abundantly illustrated, on "The Earthquake at Charleston," by Carl McKinley; "The Geology of Cape Ann, Massachusetts," by N. S. Shaler; and on the "Formation of Travertine and Siliceous Sinter by the Vegetation of Hot Springs," by Walter H. Weed. We have also received a splendidly got up monograph of over 400 pp., crowded with maps and woodcuts, on "Lake Bonneville," by Jerome K. Gilbert. The annual vol., dealing with the "Mineral Products of the United States," is, for the year 1888, by David T. Day. It deals with the working of numerous natural productions, including, besides all the metals, coal, petroleum, natural gas, asphalte, ozokerite, fertilisers, salt, mineral paint, and almost every kind of material put to use, which the rocks of the earth's crust naturally contain. These vols. are highly useful. In addition to the vols. we have received "Bulletins," Nos. 58-66, each devoted to a special geological or paleontological subject.

An Explanation of the Phonopore, by G. LangdonDavis (London: Kegan, Paul & Co.). This work is printed in double columns, French and English, and deals in a very clear manner with the details and structure of the phonopore. illustrations.

There are numerous

Electricity; the Science of the Nineteenth Century, by E. M. Caillard (London: John Murray). We have previously noticed favourably a book by Miss Caillard on 66 The Invisible Power of Nature." In the present work she gives a clear, readable, and easily-understood outline of modern electricity, chiefly for the benefit of general readers. With such a book as this at their service, no intelligent person need be ignorant of the most important and pregnant of the physical sciences. It comprises four parts, each having a series of chapters, devoted respectively to "Static Electricity" (or Electricity at Rest), "Magnetism," "Current Electricity," and the "Practical Appliances of Electricity." There are numerous illustrations.

A Class Book on Light, by R. E. Steel (London: Methuen & Co.), with 123 illustrations. This is not only one of the best little treatises we have lately seen on "Light," but on the elementary principles of optics and optical instruments as well. The contents contain eleven chapters as follows:-" The Nature, Source, Intensity, and Velocity of Light," "Reflexion from Plane Surfaces," "Ditto from Curved Surfaces," "Single Refraction at Plane

Surfaces," "Refraction at Curved Surface-Lenses," "Dispersion," "Optical Instruments," "The Eye," Interference-Diffraction," "Double Refraction and Polarisation," and on "Interference of Polarized Light."

The Foundations of Geometry, by Edward T. Dixon (Cambridge: Deighton, Bell & Co.) This is practically a new system of geometry based more or less on psychological data. It is a work calculated to stimulate criticism, and the author boldly invites it.

The Naturalist of Cumbrae. Being the Life of David Robertson, by his friend, the Rev. Thomas R. R. Stebbing (London: Kegan Paul & Co.) It is not every man who has such a "Life" of himself as this written whilst he is still living. Dr. Smiles set the example of raising literary statues to living heroes. Nevertheless, this book is altogether a delightsome one, relating the early and brave struggles of a worthy man, who stuck to business with such perseverance that for years past he has been able to devote himself wholly to natural history pursuits. David Robertson is one of the most amiable and modest of men; a quiet, unassuming, but indefatigable worker, who will, we sincerely hope, live for many years to come. Our readers should not fail to procure this entertaining and instructive book.

The Book of Aquaria, by the Rev. Gregory C. Bateman, and Reginald A. R. Bennett (London: L. Upcott Gill). We have already noticed Mr. Bateman's book on Fresh-water Aquaria. It is here reproduced, with Mr. Bennett's treatise on Marine Aquaria added, so that the two make up a handy book of reference for all aquarium keepers.

Pasteur and Rabies, by T. M. Dolan (London: G. Bell & Sons). Dr. Dolan herein goes a "crusher " against Pasteur's experiments connected with hydrophobia, which he not only disbelieves but absolutely condemns. He heartily declaims against what he calls "Vaccinomania." Readers of Pasteur and other similar experimenters will here find all that can be strongly stated on the other side.

The Honey Bee: Its Natural History, Anatomy, and Physiology, by T. W. Cowan (London: Houlston & Son). The author is a well-known writer and authority on the subject which this prettily got up book deals with. The part devoted to the anatomy of the bee will interest all naturalists. There is an abundance of original illustrations; and although Mr. Cowan has found himself obliged to deal with the subject in a very concise manner, it is not the less clear and highly readable on that account. We are pleased to draw the special attention of all bee-keepers to this excellent little manual.

The Natural Food of Man, by Dr. Emmet Densmore (London: Pewtress & Co.), is a brief but clever statement of opinion against the use of bread, cereals, pulses, and all kinds of starch foods. We cordially recommend the book to all our vegetarian readers, many of whom will find new arguments therein.

THE SPARROW.

OUBTLESS, many will say when they see the heading of this paper, surely enough has been said about this bird. What more can be wanted? Nevertheless, the fact is, that not half its true history has been written. It is not my intention to write anything like a history, but I wish to state the peculiarities in the bird I have met with during the past breeding season. Last season, and the four previous seasons, I was inquisitive enough to look into the domestic arrangements of these birds, and found that each season gave a different result.

The clutches of eggs of last season, 1890, were larger or longer than those of 1889. In that season I did not obtain a clutch of six eggs, but in the season just passed I obtained four clutches containing six eggs each, and five eggs very commonly formed the clutch. Taking the season all through, the clutches gave an average of four and a half eggs each, and the average of the broods was not quite three and a half young birds; this is the highest average I have met with. The discrepancy between the eggs and brood was not caused by the infertility of the eggs, for the eggs, as a whole, showed a very high percentage of fertility, but in many cases by incubation ceasing after the embryo was well formed, and also by some of the young birds dying in the nest. The former I found when examining a number of clutches in a very advanced state of incubation. The dead or dying young birds are as a rule carried out and dropped at a short distance from the nest. I saw an unusual number of these little outcasts last season, owing, I believe, to the great fertility of the eggs.

A curious feature exhibited itself in the eggs. In many of the clutches there was a small egg, not pygmean, but perfect; in previous seasons I have met with one or two like instances, but last season it was of frequent occurrence. In the sixty clutches I have preserved it is quite conspicuous. I also met with what I consider to be a very great curiosity, that being a genuine pygmean egg; it is about the size of a blue tit's egg, it weighed sixteen grains and contained a small quantity of albumen. It is the only specimen I have ever seen or heard of. It was in a nest with three others of the ordinary size, two being of a light colour, the third of a slaty-grey like the pygmy. In the July number of this Journal I see recorded, by Mr. Tracy, of Ipswich, that another sparrow's egg had been found marked at the smaller end. I have not been fortunate enough to obtain a specimen, neither did I see any trace of smaller end colouring amongst the four hundred sparrow's eggs I examined during the season. Nevertheless, the peculiarity showed itself in the eggs of several other birds. eggs of 1890 and 1889 showed a greater percentage of fertility than those of the previous seasons, and comparing the clutches of the two seasons they are

The

very much alike in colouring, but if the eggs of the past season had been of a lighter colour I should have considered my theory of fertility and colour running together to have fallen through; however, I have the eggs to corroborate my statement.

I fail to understand why these birds are so erratic in their nidification; they appear to have no fixed type of nest, like nearly all other birds, but the nest is made to suit the site selected for it. The nearest approach to a fixed type is when the nest is built in a tree or bush, then it is of a domed bulky structure with an entrance at the top. Then, again, they have no fixed type of egg: the eggs vary very much in size, shape and colour. I know of no bird belonging to its family which lays such a large egg in proportion to its size, some of them measuring nearly one inch in length. Many will measure 98, but I have never found a perfect egg fully an inch long. They prefer the society of man more than any other bird, and although greatly persecuted and maligned they can hold their own against all comers.

I read with much regret the sentence passed upon them in this Journal by Mr. C. Parkinson. However, it is to be hoped that it will not be carried out.

The following figures give the average of the broods for the past five seasons.

Every one must know that it is almost impossible to get at exact figures, but the foregoing give the full average; however, I have not the slightest doubt if more exact figures could be obtained that the average of the broods for the past five years would not exceed three young birds.

Popular opinion-which is always wrong-is that the sparrows have large broods, but as my investigation has been going on several of my sceptical friends find that they have been labouring under a very false impression as to the number of young birds in each brood.

Having seen my little friends breaking up various kinds of beetles, I thought I would see what they had to say to some fine fat cockroaches, so I turned some on the lawn; they were very soon amongst them. Some of the birds appeared at first afraid to attack the largest of these black-looking insects, but only one escaped by reaching cover, and he would have shared the fate of his companions had not the birds been frightened away.

JOSEPH P. NUNN.

WE are sorry to notice the death of Mr. Wm. Davies, F.G.S., lately of the British Museum, to whom many old students of geology were indebted for assistance.

THE SQUARE-TAILED WORM.

BY THE REV. HILDERIC FRIEND, F.L.S. President of the Wesley Scientific Society, Author of Flowers and Flower Lore.'

anyone except an enthusiastic lover of nature

Tanyone excrubbing, among the grass, stones,

mud and rubbish in search of such unattractive creatures as worms must be perfectly monstrous, and we quite sympathize with those matter-of-fact folk who take the worm-hunter to be a candidate for the lunatic asylum. We do not exactly see, however, why it is worse to dig for worms for scientific than for piscatorial uses, and in all fairness the angler and the naturalist should be made to sail in the same boat in this respect; if indeed the knight of the rod, who merely sacrifices the poor worms for his own delectation is worthy a place beside the knight of the scalpel whose aim is to further the interests of scientific research and extend our knowledge of God and His works.

Among our native worms there is one with a square tail (Allurus tetraedrus, Eisen) whose story has never yet been fully told by any English author so far as I am aware. It has been somewhat fully studied on the Continent, and at least one English writer has given us details of its anatomy, but so far all has been of a technical, unpopular character. When I speak of Allurus as the square-tailed worm I wish it to be understood that the term must be used in a modified sense, as we have one or two other worms which sometimes present this peculiarity, but not in so marked a degree. It was on account of the peculiar