north shore in 1594. In 1598 Sebald de Wert, a Dutchman, visited them, and called them the Sebald Islands, a name which they still bear on some of the Dutch maps. Captain Strong sailed through between the two principal islands in 1690, and called the passage Falkland Sound, and from this the group afterwards took its English name. In 1763 the islands were taken possession of by the French, who established a colony at Port Louis on Berkeley Sound; they were, however, expelled by the Spaniards in 1767 or 1768. In 1761 Commodore Byron took possession on the part of England on the ground of prior discovery, and his doing so was nearly the cause of a war between England and Spain, both countries having armed fleets to contest the barren sovereignty. In 1771, however, Spain yielded the islands to Great Britain by convention. As they had not been actually colonized by England, the republic of Buenos Ayres claimed the group in 1820, and formed a settlement at Port Louis which promised to be fairly successful, but owing to some misunderstanding with the Americans it was destroyed by the latter in 1831. After all these vicissitudes the British flag was once more hoisted at Port Louis in 1833, and since that time the Falkland Islands have been a regular British colony under a governor, and the seat of a colonial bishopric. The population of the Falkland Islands is at present about 1250, by far the greater number being English and Scottish, with a few Buenos-Ayrean Gauchos. The number of children on the school-roll in 1876 was 127. The exports now consist almost entirely of wool and tallow, with a few hides. The rearing of cattle is rapidly giving place to sheep-farming, which is found to pay better. There are now upwards of 200,000 sheep on the islands, and they yield heavy fleeces of wool of fine quality. In 1876 the value of exports amounted to £37,121, of which wool sales account for £25,453. A process adopted a few years ago by the Falkland Island Company of boiling down the carcases of sheep for tallow is likely to prove successful, and to add another valuable export. The trade in sealskins, which was at one time of great value, is now almost at an end, and there is also a great falling off in the export of oil, the whales and seals which were at one time very numerous, particularly about West Falkland, having almost entirely left the coasts.

The Falkland Islands correspond very nearly in latitude in the southern hemisphere with Middlesex in the northern, but the conditions of climate are singularly different. The temperature is very equable, the average of the two midsummer months being about 47' Fahr., and that of the two midwinter months 37° Fahr. The sky is almost constantly overcast, and rain falls, mostly in a drizzle and in frequent showers, on about 250 days in the year. The rainfall is not great, only about 20 inches, but the mean humidity for the year is 80, saturation being 100. Owing to the absence of sunshine and summer lieat, and the constant fog and rain, wheat will not ripen, barley and oats can scarcely be said to do so, and the common English vegetables will not produce seed in the gardens. Still the inhabitants seem to get accustomed to their moist, chilly surroundings, and the colony is remarkably healthy.

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The Falkland Islands form essentially a part of Patagonia, with which they are connected by an elevated submarine plateau, and their flora is much the same as that of Antarctic South America. The trees which form dense forest, and scrub in southern Patagonia and in Fuegia are absent, and one of the largest plants on the islands is a gigantic woolly ragweed (Senecio candicans) which attains in some places a height of three to four feet. A half-shrubby veronica (V. decussata) is found locally on the west island. The greater part of the "camp" is formed of peat, which in some places is of great age and depth, and at the bottom of the bed very dense and bituminous. The peat is different in its character

from that of the north of Europe: cellular plants enter but little into its composition, and it is formed almost entirely of the roots and stems of Empetrum rubrum, a variety of tho common crowberry of the Scottish hills with red berries, called by the Falklanders the "diddle-dee" berry; of Myrtus nummularia, a little creeping myrtle whose leaves are used by the shepherds as a substitute for tea; of Caltha appendiculata, a dwarf species of marsh-marigold; and of some sedges and sedge-like plants, such as Astelia pumila, Gaimardia australis, and Bostkovia grandiflora. There is an intention of establishing a work in Stanley for converting the peat into patent compressed fuel.

To

Two vegetable productions of the Falklands, the "balsam bog" and the "tussock grass," have been objects of curiosity and interest over since the first accounts of the islands reached us. In many places the low grounds look at a little distance as if they were scattered over with large grey boulders, three or four to six or eight feet across. heighten the illusion many of these blocks are covered with lichens, and bands of grass grow in soil collected in crevices, just as they would in little rifts in rocks. These boulderlike masses are single plants of Boldx glebaria, an umbelliferous plant. The lumps of balsam-bog are quite hard and nearly smooth, and only when looked at closely are they seen to be covered with small hexagonal markings like the calices of a weathered piece of coral. These are the circlets of leaves and the leaf-buds terminating a multitude of stems which have gone on growing with extreme slowness and branching dichotomously for an unknown length of time, possibly for centuries, ever since the plant started as a single shoot from a seed. The growth is so slow, and the condensation from constant brauching is so great, that the block becomes as hard as the boulder which it so much resembles, and it is difficult to cut a shaving from the surface with a sharp knife. Under the unfrequent condition of a warın day with the sun shining, a pleasant aromatic odour may be perceived where the plants abound, and a pale yellow astringent gum exudes from the surface, which is used by the shepherds as a vulnerary. The "tussock grass," Dactylis caspitosa, is a wonderful and most valuable natural production, which, owing to the introduction of stock into the islands, will probably ere long become extinct. It is a reed-like grass, which grows in dense tufts from six to ten feet high from stool-like root-crowns. The leaves and stems are most excellent fodder, and are extremely attractive to cattle, but the lower parts of the stems and the crowns of the roots have a sweet nutty flavour which makes them irresistible, and cattle and pigs, and all creatures herbivorous and omnivorous, crop the tussocks to the ground, when the rain getting into the crowns rots the roots. The work of extermination has procceded rapidly, and now the tussock grass is confined to patches in a narrow border round the shore and to some of the outlying islands. The land fauna of the Falklands is very scanty. A large wolf-like fox, which seems to be indigenous, was common some years ago, but is now nearly exterminated. Some herds of cattle and horses run wild; but these were of course introduced, as were also the wild hogs, the numerous rabbits, and the much less numerous hares. Landbirds are few in number, and are mostly strays from Fuegia. Sea-birds are very abundant, and, probably from the islands having been comparatively lately peopled, they are singularly tame. Several species of wild geese, some of them very good eating, fly about in large flocks, and are so fearless that the boys bring them down at will by entangling their wings with a form of the "bolas" made with a pair of the knuckle-bones of an ox.

The Falkland Islands consist entirely, so far as we know at present, of the older paleozoic rocks, Lower Devonian or Upper Silurian, slightly metamorphosed and a good deal

crumpled and distorted, in the low grounds clay slate and soft sandstone, and on the ridges hardened sandstone passing into the conspicuous white quartzites. There do not seem to be any minerals of value, and the rocks are not such as to indicate any probability of their discovery. Galena is found in small quantity, and in some places it contains a large percentage of silver. The dark bituminous layers of clay slate, which occur intercalated among the quartzites, have led, here as elsewhere, to the hope of coming upon a seam of coal, but it is entirely. contrary to experience that coal of any value should be found in rocks of that age.

Most of the valleys in the Falklands are occupied by pale glistening masses which at a little distance have very much the look of some of the smaller Swiss glaciers. Examined a little more closely these are found to be vast accumulations of blocks of quartzite, irregular in form, but having a \tendency to a rude diamond shape, from two to eight or ten or twenty feet in length, and half as much in width, and of a thickness corresponding with that of the quartzite ridges on the hills above. The blocks are angular, like the fragments in a breccia, and rest irregularly one upon the other, supported in all positions by the angles and edges of those beneath. The whole mass looks as if it were, and no doubt it is, slowly sliding down the valley to the sea. These "stone rivers" are looked upon with great wonder by the shifting population of the Falklands, and they are shown to visitors with many strange speculations as to their mode of formation. Their origin is not far to seek. The hard beds of quartzite are denuded by the disintegration of the softer layers. Their support being removed they break away in the direction of natural joints, and the fragments fall down the slope upon the vegetable, soil. This soil is spongy, and, undergoing alternate contraction and expansion from being alternately comparatively dry and saturated with moisture, allows the heavy blocks to slip down by their own weight into the valley, where they become piled up, the valley stream afterwards removing the soil from among and over them. They certainly present a very striking phenomenon.

See Pernetz, Journal historique d'une voyage faite aux les Malouines en 1763 et 1764, Berlin, 1767; S. Johnson, Thoughts on the late Transactions respecting Falkland's Islands, 1771; T. Falkner, Description of Palagonia and the Falkland Islands, 1774; B. Penrose, Account of the last Expedition to Port Egmont in the Falkland Islands, 1775; Observations on the forcible occupation of Malvinas by the British Government in 1833, Buenos Ayres, 1833; Recla macion del Gobierno de las provincias Unidas de la Plata contra el de S. M. Britanica sobre la soverania y possesion de las Islas Malvinas, London, 1841; Fitzroy, Narrative of the surveying voyage of H.M.S. Adventure and Beagle, 1839; Darwin, Voyage of a Naturalist round the World, 1845; S. B. Sullivan, Description of the Falkland Islands, 1849; W. Hadfield, Brazil, the Falkland Islands, &c., 1854; W. Parker Snow, Two years' cruise off the Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, &c., 1857; Sir Wyville Thomson, Voyage of the Challenger, 1877. (C. W. T.) FALLMERAYER, JAKOB PHILIPP (1791-1861), a German traveller and historical investigator, best known for his opinions in regard to the ethnology of the modern Greeks, was born, the son of a poor peasant, at Tschötsch, near Brixen in Tyrol, 10th December 1791. In 1809 he absconded from the cathedral school at Brixen and repaired to Salzburg, where he studied theology, the Semitic languages, and history. At the university of Landshut, to which he next removed, he at first applied himself to jurisprudence, but soon again devoted his exclusive attention to history and philology. During the Napoleonic wars the still youthful student forsook his books, joined the Bavarian infantry in 1813, took part in a battle near Hanau, and accompanied his regiment to France. Receiving his discharge in 1818, he was successively engaged as teacher and professor in the gymnasium at Augsburg, and in the pro-gymnasium and lyceum at Landsbut. The three years from 1831 to 1834 he

spent in travel, along with the Russian Count Ostermann Tolstoi, visiting Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, Rhodes. Constantinople, Greece, and Naples. On his return he was elected in 1835 a member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, but he soon after left the country again on account of political troubles, and spent the greater part of the next four years with Count Tolstoi at Geneva. Constantinople, Trapezunt, Athos, Macedonia, Thessaly, and Greece were visited by him during 1840-41; and after some years' residence in Munich he returned in 1847 to the East, and travelled through parts of Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor. The political changes in Bavaria invited him home in 1848, and he was appointed professor of history in the Munich university, and made a member of the national congress at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. He there joined the left or opposition party, and in the following year he accompanied the rump-parliament to Stuttgart, a course of action which naturally led to his expulsion from his professorate. During the winter of 1849-50 he was obliged to live in Switzerland to escape arrest, but the amnesty of April 1850 enabled him to return to Munich. He died, April 26, 1861. His contributions to the history of Greece in the Middle Ages are of great value; and though his theory that the Greeks of the present day are almost pure Slavonians, with hardly a drop of true Greek blood in their veins, has not been accepted in toto by other investigators, it has served to modify the opinions of even his greatest opponents. A criticism of his views will be found in Hopf's Geschichte Griechenlands (reprinted from Ersch and Gruber's Encycl.), and in Finlay's History of Greece in the Middle Ages.

His works are-Geschichte des Kaiserthums Trapezunt, Munich, 1827; Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea im Mittelalter, Stuttgart, 1830-1836; Ueber die Entstehung der Neugriechen, Stuttgart, 1835; Trapezunts," Munich, 1843, in Abhandl. der. hist. Classe der K. "Originalfragmente, Chroniken, u. s. w., zur Geschichte des K. Bayerisch Akad. v. Wiss.; Fragmente aus dem Orient, Stuttgart, 1845; Denkschrift über. Golgotha und das heilige Grab, Munich, 1852, and Das Todte Meer, 1853-both of which had appeared in the Abhandlungen of the Academy; Das Albanesische Element in Griechenland, III. parts, in the Abhandl. for 1860-1866. After his death there appeared at Leipsic in 1861, under the editorship of A. Thomas, three volumes of Gesammelte Werke, containing Neue Fragmente aus dem Orient, Kritische Versuche, and Studien und Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben. A sketch of his life will also be found in L. Steub, Herbsttage in Tyrol, Munich, 1867.

FALLOPIUS, or FALLOPIO, GABRIELLO (1523-1562), one of the greatest anatomists of his time, was a native of Modena. He studied medicine at Ferrara, and, after a European tour, becamo teacher of anatomy in that city. He thence removed to Pisa, and from Pisa, at the instance of Cosmo I., grand-duke of Tuscany, to Padua, where, besides the chairs of anatomy and surgery and of botany, he held the office of superintendent of the new botanical garden. He died October 9, 1562. Only one treatise by Fallopius appeared during his lifetime, namely the Observationes Anatomice, Venice, 1561. His collective works, Opera genuina omnia, were published at Venice in 1584. For an account of the services which Fallopius rendered to anatomical science, see ANATOMY, vol. i. p. 809.

is

FALL RIVER, a city of the United States, Massachusetts, situated on Mount Hope Bay, the north-east arm of Narraganset Bay, 46 miles S. of Boston. The Fall river, which here joins the Taunton, has a descent of 130 feet in less than half a mile, and its great water-power was at an early period of much advantage for the development of the manufactures of the town, but most of the mills are now driven by steam. The town is well built, and many of the streets are finely adorned with trees. The harbour on Taunton river is safe and easy of access, and has depth of water sufficient for the largest ships. Fall River has a large coasting trade, and is engaged in the whale and other

fisheries. The total value of foreign and domestic imports for the year ending June 30, 1877, was $12,358, and of exports $4795. The principal industry is the manufacture of cotton goods, especially print cloths, but there are also woollen factories, bleaching works, foundries, a shipbuilding yard, and planing mills. In the neighbourhood there are valuable granite quarries. Fall River is the terminus of the line of steamers in the route from New York to Boston. It was incorporated as a town in 1803, and received a city charter in 1854; and in 1862 Fall River, Newport county, with 3377 inhabitants, was added to it. The population in 1850 was 11,522, and in 1870 26,766. FALMOUTH, a municipal and parliamentary borough and market-town of England, county of Cornwall, on the south side of Falmouth Harbour, 15 miles N.N.E. of Lizard Point, and 267 miles W.S.W, of London. The town consists chiefly of a long and narrow street extending along the shore. The principal public buildings are the hall of the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, the mechanics institute, the town-hall, and the market-house. In the early part of the 17th century Falmouth consisted only of a few fishermen's huts, but soon after this Sir John Killigrew, having obtained the permission of James I., constructed a new quay and laid the foundation of the present town. Its subsequent prosperity was a consequence of the excellence of its harbour, and its proximity to Land's End. For about 150 years it was the port from which the mail packets for the Mediterranean, Spain, the West Indies, and South America were despatched; and though these steamers now start from other ports it maintains steam communication' with London, Liverpool, Dublin, Penzance, Plymouth, and Southampton. The harbour is one of the best refuges for shipping in England. Its entrance between St Anthony's Head on the E. and Pendennis Castle on the W. is about a mile in width, and it thence stretches inland about five and a half miles. It has depth of water and excellent anchorage for the largest ships, and vessels of considerable burden can discharge their cargoes at the quay. In 1876 the number that entered the port was 803, with a tonnage of 118,617; the number that cleared 384; tonnage 26,522. The total value of imports was £240,474, and of exports £5261. The exports include copper, tin, tinplates, woollen goods, and fish. Falmouth along with Penryn returns two members to parliament. The population of the municipal borough in 1871 was 5294.

FALSE POINT, a land-locked harbour in the Cuttack district of Orissa, situated in 20° 20′ N. lat. and 86° 47′ E long., and reported by the famine commissioners in 1867 to be the best harbour on the coast of India from the Húgli to Bombay. It derives its name from the circumstance that vessels proceeding up the Bay of Bengal frequently mistook it for Point Palmyras, a degree further north. The anchorage is safe, roomy, and completely landlocked. The capabilities of False Point as a harbour remained long unknown, and it was only in 1860 that the port was opened. It was rapidly developed, owing to the construction of the Orissa canals. Two navigable channels lead in land across the Mahánadí delta, and connect the port with Cuttack city. The trade of False Point is chiefly with other Indian harbours, but a large export trade in rice and oil-seeds has sprung up with Mauritius, the French colonies, and France. False Point is now a regular port of call for Anglo-Indian coasting steamers. Its capabilities were first appreciated during the Orissa famine of 1866, when it afforded almost the only means by which supplies of rice could be thrown into the province. Between 1863-64 and 1874-75 the value of the export and import trade of False Point has increased from £51,921 to £261,212, or upwards of five times, and the nuraber of vessels visiting the port from 16 to 110. A lighthouse is situated a little

to the south of the anchorage, on the point which screens it from the southern monsoon, in 20° 19′ 52" N. lat. and 86° 46′ 57′′ E. long.

FALSTER, an island in the Baltic, belonging to Denmark. It is richly wooded and well cultivated, and is very fertile, especially in fruits. Area, 180 square miles; popu lation (1870), 27,763. See Denmark.

FALUN, or FAHLUN, a town of Sweden, capital of a laen of the same name, which, however, is also called Dalarna or Dalecarlia, is situated in a bare and rocky country near the W. shore of Lake Runn, 73 miles W. of Gefle. The town is built chiefly of timber, and the inhabitants are mostly engaged in mining and smelting. West of the town are the celebrated Falun copper mines, the oldest and most celebrated in Europe. They are known to have been in existence 600 years ago, but probably their origin is some centuries earlier. Since the 17th century thefr produce has been gradually decreasing, and while in 1650 they produced nearly 3300 tons the total output in 1874 was only a little over 490 tons. In the town are museums of mineralogy and geology, a school of practical mining, a model room, and a large scientific library. The fumes arising from the copper-smelting works destroy vegetation in the vicinity of the town, but so far from being injurious to human life, they seem often to have acted as a preventative against cholera and other epidemic diseases. Connected with the copper works there are shot, sulphur, vitriol, and Indian red factories. The population of Falun in 1875 was 6694.

FAMAGOSTA. See CYPRUS.

FAMILY. Family is a word of which the etymology but partially illustrates the meaning. The Roman familia, derived from the Oscan famel (servus), criginally signifled the servile property, the thralls, of a master. Next, the term denoted other domestic property, in things as well as in persons. Thus, in the fifth of the laws of the Twelve Tables the rules are laid down :-SI. INTESTATO. Moritur. cut. SUUS. HERES, NEC. SÍT. ADGNATUS. PROXIMUS. FAMILIAM. HABETO, and SI. AGNATUS. NEC. ESCIT. GENTILIS. FAMILIAM. NANCITOR; that is, if a man die intestate, leaving no natural heir, who had been under his potestas, the nearest agnate, or relative tracing his connexion with the deceased exclusively through males, is to inherit the familia, or family fortune of every sort. Failing an agnate, a member of the gens of the dead man is to inherit. In a third sense, the Roman word familia was applied to all the persons who could prove themselves to be descended from the same ancestor, and thus the word almost corresponded to our own use of it in the widest meaning, as when we say that a person is "of a good family" (Ulpian, Dig., 50, 16, 195, fin.). Leaving for a while the Roman terms, to which it will be necessary to return, we may provisionally define "family," in the modern sense, as the small community formed by the union of one man with one woman, and by the increase of children born to them. These in modern times, and in most European countrles, constitute the household, and it has been almost universally supposed that little natural associations of this sort are the germ-cell of early society. The history with which, from childhood, we are best acquainted shows us the growth of the Jewish nation from the one household of Abraham. It is true that his patriarchal family differed from the modern family in one respect. It was polygamous, but, as female chastity was one of the conditions of the patriarchal family, and as descent through males was therefore recognized as certain, the plurality of wives makes no real difference to the argument. In the same way the earliest formal records of Indian, Greek, and Roman society show us the family firmly established, and generally regarded as the most primitive of human associations. Thus, Aristotle derives

IX.

Chinese, to Fohi. As to polyandry, among Aryans of India, a famous passage in the Mahabharata tells how the fire brothers Pandava "married the fair Draaupadi with eyes of lotus blue." The whole legend of these princes is so marked with the stamp of polyandrous institutions that the very terminology of polyaudry, the system of nomenclature called "classificatory," is retained. Grand-uncles, in this episode of the Mahabharata, as among the Red Indians, are called grandfathers, and uncles fathers.

If, then, the Aryan race was not originally organized like the polyandrous Thibetans, the legends which declare these facts are at least singular examples of "undesigned coincidence." Before coming to that conclusion, it is now necessary to examine certain symbolic customs, certain laws of inheritance and of prohibited degrees, and so to determine whether the looser relations of savages may not have been the material out of which the modern family was gradually fashioned. This can scarcely be called a new, though it has never been a popular opinion. Mr Millar, professor of law in the university of Glasgow, expressed it distinctly in his Origin of the Distinction of Ranks, p. 47 (4th edition, Edinburgh, 1806).

3. If the practices which make kindred through males difficult or impossible to recognize were ever universally prevalent, they will have left vestiges of their existence in the custom of tracing descent through females. Again, where that custom is met with, though marriage has become fixed, and where women are mistresses of the household and heads of the family, it is r not easy to give any other explanation of these facts than this, that they are survivals from a time when the union of the sexes was vague and temporary. Where, then, do we meet with examples of kindred traced through the female line? Kindred through women is recognized in Australia (with exceptions among certain tribes), in the Marianne Islands, in Fiji, Tonga, and some other isles of the Pacific, and in the Carolina Islands. Among the Kars of the Golden Chersonese, the tribes are divided into Sgans, who recognize male descent, and Pwos, who reckon by the mother's side. The natives of the province of Keang-se are celebrated among the natives of the other Chinese provinces for the mode or form used by them in address, which is Laon peaon," para phrastically translated (Morgan, Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, p. 452), "Oh, you old fellow, brother mine by some of the ramifications of female relationship!" To select some more modern instances from M. Giraud Teulon's collections (Origine de la Famille, Geneva, 1874, p. 15), the Singhalese, the Nairs of Malabar, the Kocchs, an Indian tribe, and the Zaporogue Cossacks, with the red men of North America as a rule, and the Indians of British Guinea, to whom we may add many African tribes (Bowditch, Mission to Ashantee, p. 185, London, 1873; Munzinger, Ost-Afrikanische Studien, 1864), count kindred by the mother's side. Another collection of examples will be found in Mr M'Lennan's Primitive Marriage. Strabo reports that among the Iberians women were heads of families (i. 214, 319; iii. 165), and Cordier (Anciennes coutumes de Barége) shows that among the Basques women inherited property to the exclusion of males as late as the eighteenth century. The legislation of the Revolution changed all this, but a popular song still testifies to the annoyance of les héritières. This ancient custom thus fulfils the proverb, "Tout finit par des chansons" (Giraud Teulon, La Mère chez certains peuples de PAntiquité, Paris, 1867, p. 42). Among ancient peoples there are very many more or less distinct vestiges of female kinship. Herodotus, it is true, says of the Lycians (i. 173), "This custom they have to themselves, and herein agree with no other men, in that they name themselves by the mother's side and not by the father's. And if one ask

another wao he is, he will recount his maternal descent, and reckon up his mother's maternal ancestors." Now, so far from this mode of deducing descent being peculiar to the Lycians, it was in vogue among the Locrians (Polybius, 12, v., and. Excerpta Hist. Græc. Frag., Rome, 1827, p. 384). In the bilingual Etruscan inscriptions, according to M. Giraud Teulon (Origine de la Famille, p. 21), to whom we owe many of these citations, "the Etruscan text contains only the name of the mother of the dead, while tho Latin text gives that of the father." Certain Egyptian mortuary inscriptions give the name of the mother, while the accompanying Greek text gives that of the father. A stele found in the ruins of the temple at Napata by Mariette Bey (Revue Archéologique, May 1873) shows us a monarch justifying his claim to the throne by enumerating the women of his maternal ancestry. Future historians will no doubt explain the apparent coexistence of two systems of kindred in Egypt. Meanwhile it is noteworthy that Herodotus (ii. 35) declares that daughters were compelled by law to maintain their parents, while sons were free to do as they pleased. This report has been curiously confirmed by the legal documents of certain private Egyptian families, lately deciphered by M. Revillout. We see the woman mistress of the household, and owner of the property. Many other ancient examples are published by the Baron d'Eckstein (Revue Archéologique, 1858), but M. d'Eckstein's speculations about race need not be accepted. Millar (op. cit., p. 48) quotes some survivals of the custom of tracing pedigree and deriving condition through women: "If any one be born of a Campanian father, and a mother Puteolan, he is a Campanian citizen, unless, by some particular custom (privilegio aliquo), his maternal descent is to be reckoned" Among places where this local custom ruled, Delphi is mentioned. The great collections of the facts known about the ancient position of women as heads of the family is Bachofen's Das Mutterrecht, in which somewhat crude speculations about religion are introduced. The most classical example of a tradition of gynæcocracy is that often-quoted tale of Varro's preserved by St Augustine (De Civitate Dei, lib. xviii. c. 9). In the time of Cecrops, the serpent-king, a dispute arose between Pallas and Poseidon, which was settled by the votes of the Athenians. In these days women possessed the franchise, and_a woman's vote turned the scale in favour of Pallas. appease Poseidon, the Athenian men resolved that women should no more be adraitted to the assemblies, nor should children take their names from the mother's family. In this tradition survives a memory of the Red Indian and Australian practice, which makes the child belong to the mother's clan, and also a memory of the political rights, so to speak, which women enjoyed among the ancient Britons, among the Iroquois of Lafitau's time, and which take the shape of a considerable share in the despotism of African races. It may be said that if women bave ever enjoyed these privileges it is odd that among the leasi cultivated peoples, such as the Australians, they are treated as slaves. The reply is-if the Australians were a people of barbaric wealth, like many African nations, and if the cer tainty of succession to the "royal stool" and the royal treasures were a matter of the utmost moment to the state, it is not improbable that the ancient custom of female kinship would have given, among them too, dignity, import ance, and power to women. Thus we know from several sources that

From the nobility of the mother

Should always be the right to the sovereignty

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among the Celts in Scotland (M'Lennan, Primitive Marriage, 1865, p. 86, quoting Nennius; the AngloSaxon Chronicle, Rolls series, p. 1). Even in the Mahab harata there is a vestige of this system. Vasouki, the