department of the Hautes Pyrénées. From that time to his death he actively busied himself with the affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution of February 1848, and is said to have exercised a decided influence in financial matters on the provisional Government then formed. He shortly afterwards published two pamphlets against the use of paper money, entitled, Pas d'Assignats and Opinion de M. A. Fould sur les Assignats. During the presidency of Louis Napoleon he was four times minister of finance, and took a leading part in the economical reforms then made in France. His strong conservative tendencies led him to oppose the doctrine of free trade, and disposed him to hail the "Coup d'État" and the new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence of the decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family, he resigned the office of minister of finance, but was on the same day appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the Government as minister of state and of the imperial household. In this capacity he directed the Paris exhibition of 1855. The events of November 1860 led once more to his resignation, but he was recalled to the ministry of finance in November of the following year, and retained office until the publication of the imperial letter of the 19th of January 1867, when M. Émile Olivier became the chief adviser of the emperor. During his last tenure of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican war had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan of 300 millions of francs (1863). Fould, besides uncommon financial abilities, had a taste for the fine arts, which he developed and refined during his youth by visiting Italy and the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857 he was made an honorary member of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes on the 5th October 1867. FOULIS, ANDREW and ROBERT, two learned Scotch printers and publishers, whose enterprise and devotion to the interests of the higher education deserve to be gratefully remembered. Robert, the elder of the two, was born in 1707, and his brother in 1712. Their father was a maltman in Glasgow, and they consequently had very ordinary opportunities for intellectual culture in their early years. Robert was apprenticed to a barber; but his ability attracted the attention of Dr Francis Hutchison, who strongly recommended him to establish a printing press. After spending 1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had received a better educa tion, he started business about 1740-1, and in 1743 was appointed printer to the university. In this same year he brought out Demetrius Phalereus, the first Greek book ever printed in Glasgow; and this was soon followed by the famous 12mo edition of Horace which was long but erroneously believed to be immaculate: though the successive sheets were suspended in the university and a reward offered for the discovery of any inaccuracy, six errors at least, according to Dibdin, escaped detection. Soon afterwards the brothers entered into partnership, and they continued for about 30 years to issue carefully corrected and elegantly printed editions of classical works in Latin, Greek, English, French, and Italian. Upwards of 500 separate publications proceeded from their press-among the more noticeable being the small editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, Lucretius, and Juvenal; a beautiful edition of the Greek Testament, in small 4to; Homer, 4 vols. fol., 1756-1758; Herodotus, Greek and Latin, 9 vols. 12mo, 1761; Xenophon, Greck and Latin, 12 vols. in 12mo, 1762-1767; Gray's Poems; Pope's Works; Milton's Pocms. The brothers spared no pains, and Robert went to Franco to procure manuscripts of the classics, and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer. Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution for the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their chief patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to " print for pusterity and prosper," they spent their money in collecting pictures, pieces of sculpture, and models, in paying for the education and travelling of youthful artists, and in copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their countrymen were not ripe for such an attempt, and the "Academy" not only proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew died in 1775, and his brother went to London, hoping to realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures. They were sold for much less than he anticipated, and he returned broken-hearted to Scotland, where ho died at Edinburgh in June 1776. The debts of the firm amounted to £6500. Robert was the author of a Catalogue of Paintings with Critical Remarks, 3 vols. See W. J. Duncan, Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary History of Glasgow, printed for the Maitland Club, 1831, which inter alia contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis press, and another of the pictures, statues, and busts in plaster of Paris produced at the "Academy" in the university of Glasgow. FOUNDING, the art of reproducing solid objects in metal or other fusible substances by pouring the melted substance into moulds. It is also known as casting, and objects so produced are said to be of cast metal. Works where founding or casting is carried on are turmed foundries, and their proprietors founders. The verb to found is not, however, in current use, being almost entirely replaced by cast. The root of the word is the Latin fundus. Three principal operations are involved in founding:(1) moulding, or the production of a hollow mould to receive the melted metal; (2) melting, or running down the metal; and (3) pouring, or filling the mould with the liquid metal. The preparation of the original object or pattern from which the mould is made is not strictly part of foundry work proper, the founder receiving the pattern prepared in wood from the original drawings from the engineer's patternmaker, except in those cases where no pattern is required, and the model is built up on the foundry floor by the moulder by the use of revolving templates, dividing engines, or other contrivances. The metals best suited for foundry work are those that possess the property of increasing in volume at the mome.it of passage from the liquid to the solid state so that its particles may be pressed into and fill up the finest cavities of the mould in setting. This property is best developed in bismuth, the alloys of copper with tin and zinc (bronze and brass), and cast iron. Lead does not take a sharp impression unless alloyed with tin or antimony, as in type metal. Copper also does not give sound castings. Patterns for moulding require to be made somewhat larger than the cast required, the difference being determined by the linear dilatation of the metal between the ordinary temperature and that at the moment of solidification. This varics for different metals; for cast iron it is about for hard bronze, ; soft bronze, 13; brass,; zinc, i lead, ; tin, ; and bismuth, Patterns for iron founders are therefore made larger than the finished size required in the proportion of one-eighth of an inch to the foot in their lincar measurement, an allowance known as "shrinkago"-the patternmaker's rule being longer by that quantity than the ordinary engineer's rule. Patterns aro usually made of wood, except when the object is intended to be reproduced in great numbers, when brass or iron oncs are often used. The more easily fusible alloys, such as powter, type metal, Britannia metal, &c., are cast in metallic (iron or brass) moulds, which are used indefinitoly; but with metals having a higher melting point, a separate mould is required for each cast, metal moulds being only used with these, for the production of ingots or masses that are brought to shape by other means, or when a special quality of surface is required, as in chill casting. In most cases castings are hollow, the thickness being determined by the empty space included between the mould proper which represents the external surface of the object, and a false mould or core, which may also reproduce a finished surface, as in cylinders, pipes, &c., or, be rough and uneven, as in statuary castings, where only the external surface is exposed. The material generally used in moulding from patterns is fine sand, either "green," ie., slightly damp, or dry, that is, dried by artificial heat-the first method being adopted for all castings of moderate size and weight, while dry sand mouldings are chiefly used for heavy castings where great solidity and strength are required. The principal requisites of a good foundry sand are fine and uniform grain, a certain amount of cohesiveness witllout being sticky, infusibility at the temperature of the metal poured, and freedom from combustible or other substances giving off gases when heated. These are best fulfilled by a nearly pure quality of siliceous sand, with at most 3 or 4 per cent. of clay and a slight proportion of hydrated peroxide of iron; the particles when moulded should allow free passage for gases to escape, while perfectly impermeable to the melted metal. Good foundry sands are easily procured in most parts of the United Kingdom, the best being those obtained from reconstructed sandstones in the alluvia of the Thames and other large rivers, and the drift of the New Red Sandstone districts of central England. In other countries not so well provided, foundry sands are often imported or brought from considerable distances inland. The same sand is used continuously,-the moulds after use being emptied into a pit in the foundry floor, whence the supply for new moulds is taken as required. Fresh sand is added from time to time to make up the waste and to maintain the required plasticity, which diminishes by constant heating. A proportion of ground coal or charcoal is mixed with the sand, so that, although the latter is actually red or brown when fresh, it is reduced to a dark grey or black in the foundry. The sand forming the mould is held together by an outer frame or box called a flask, as many flasks being used as there are separate parts in the mould. These are united by lugs and cotters, the top one being sometimes loaded when the object is large to prevent it moving under the pressure of the fluid inetal. A proper division of the mould is one of the chief points to be attended to in foundry work; where the object is divisible by a central plane into two Fia. 1.-Arrangement of Patterns in casting Railway Chairs. equal and similar halves, two flasks are usually sufficient; | The ordinary operation of moulding is as follows. A flask laid with its lugs uppermost is rammed up with old sand to a smooth surface. In this the lower half of the pattern is imbedded, and the surface is covered with dry or facing sand to prevent adhesion. Upon this a second flask is placed, and sand is carefully rammed upon the pattern until the box is completely filled, when the whole is turned over, and the first or false part is emptied, the surface of the upper half smoothed down or faced with sand or finely ground coal or charcoal, and a runner stick, which forms the passage or ingate for the metal, inserted. The second half is then similarly moulded in a second flask, and when finished the upper box is lifted by a crane, leaving the pattern in the lower one or drag, from which it is lifted by spikes or rods screwed on temporarily, a slight vibrating motion being set up by striking it rapidly with a piece of wood or iron in order to start it more easily. This is an operation of some nicety, as the blows must be moderate so as not to risk injury to the sand. Provision is made for the exit of gases by piercing vent holes through the sand by a fine wire during ramming. The surface of the mould is finished by dusting it over with charcoal or graphite. In moulding railway chairs and similar objects of an irregular form required in great numbers, metal patterns are used with loose pieces united by spikes and dove-tails for the overhanging parts, such as the inner faces of the jaws,-the joints being so arranged that the straight parts of the pattern may be withdrawn, leaving the loose parts behind in the mould, whence they are afterwards removed by hand. Fig. 1 represents in section an arrangement of this kind, as applied to moulding railway chairs. The right hand figure shows the pattern in place with the sand rammed, and the left the mould with the pattern D withdrawn, the loose jaws or core prints" a, b, c, remaining in the sand, but in such a position as to be casily removed when the flask is turned over. The pattern is withdrawn by a straight pull on the handle H. The stop P gives support to the cores, &c., which represent the trenail holes in the finished casting (fig. 2), and prevent them being dragged away with the pattern, as they might be if left unsupported. The regular descent of the pattern is ensured by the deep sides A and the guides they move in. Usually four patterns are fixed upon one table, so that four chairs are moulded at oue operation, the withdrawal of the pattern being effected by lowering the table by a FIG. 2.-Finished Castings. hydraulic press or other mechanical arrangement. Tho lower mould forming the base of the chair is a nearly flat plate moulded in another machine In loam moulding, as used for largo pipes or cylinders, a hollow core of iron or brick is placed in the centre of the foundry, and around it a layer of loam, that is, a mixture of sand and clay rendered plastic by mixture wit! water, is laid on by trowels and finished up by a revolving template working round a central vertical spindle to the dimension of the interior, forming the "nowel" or core, which when dried is washed with finely ground charcoal and water Upon this a loam pattern is made up by another template representing the outer surface of the cylinder to the thickness of the finished work, This in like manuer is dried and black-washed, and finally a shell of brickwork is built outside, leaving a few inches space between it and the second moulded surface, which is carefully filled up with loam, and forms the "cope" or mould proper. This when dried is lifted by a crane, and either separates from the pattern or "thickness" or drags it away with it, but in either case the latter is broken away, and when the cope is replaced the mould is ready for use as soon as the necessary air-vents, ingates, runner passages, &c., have been provided. In many large foundries, however, gas and water pipes of large size are now produced from permanent moulds of cast iron faced with a thin layer of saud or loam; the outer moulds, being divided into two parts, are brought up to the work and removed by trucks running upon railways. The method of moulding for bell-founding and statuary is generally similar in principle to that of a loam moulding, with this difference, that the thickness ropresenting the finished object is made up not of loam but of wax, and in the case of statuary, where the object is to use as little metal as possible, it is usually very thin. A plaster cast divided into sections, taken from the original work, forms the matrix within which the wax is moulded of the proper thickness, the inside core being formed of clay with some metal bars to give support, when the work is large. When the plaster mould is removed, the waxon surface is finished up by the sculptor, and the outer mantle or mould proper is formed by coating it with a porous clay mixture. This when dried is carefully baked or burned in a furnace, and the wax melting at the same time leaves the hollow to receive the mictal It is sometimes necessary to leave holes in the casting to allow of the withdrawal of the surface; these are afterwards stopped with plugs of the Bame metal. Great care is required in the placing of the ingates and runners so as to allow the mould to be regularly and rapidly filled, and prevent any part of the metal setting or chilling before the proper moment. Melting. This may be effecfed either with or without contact with the fuel. In the former case the metal is charged alternately with coke, and occasionally a little flux, into a cylindrical or slightly conical blast furnace known as a cupola, and accumulates in a hollow or sump at the bottom below the tuyeres or blast pipes, whence it is tapped out from time to time, either directly into the mould or more generally into a ladle, for conveyance to the moulds arranged upon the foundry floor. In the second case the fusion takes place either upon the bed of a reverberatory furnace or in crucibles in air furnaces heated by coke or by gaseous fuel. Of these methods the first or cupola is only fitted for iron founding, the reverberatory furnace is used for bronze and iron, and in special forms for steel; while crucible melting is most general for brass and bronze small castings, as well as for the finer kinds of steel, or generally for any metal that is likely to be altered by direct contact with the fuel. The description of these appliances belongs more properly to the article Furnace. The founder's ladle or shank " is a bucket or cup-shaped vessel of wrought iron lined with a shell of fire-clay, with a lip for pouring, having two projecting handles. One of thesc is straight and serves as a pivot; the other with a cross bar called a crutch is used as a tipping handle when pouring. When of small size the filled ladle can be carried from the cupola to the work and poured by two men, but when of large size containing several tons of metal they aro slung from a crane and tipped by a tangent screw and worm wheel, manipulated by a man standing at a distance. The perfection of ladle arrangement is to be seen in Beasemier process of steel, making, where several tons of melted steel aro distributed into a ring of ingot moulds in a circular pit by two or three men in a very few minutes. In Krupp's arrangements for making large steel castings from crucibles an intermediate or equalizing ladle is used. The er cibles, which contain about 70 each, are drawn from the furnaces in regular order, and poured in such a manner that an uninterrupted stream of metal is kept up from the ladle to the mould Large castings when filled from above are liable to be spongy or unsound in the upper part of the mould, or that last filled. In such cases an extra length is given at the top of the mould, as the unsound portion or dead-head is afterwards removed This plan is usually followed in casting bronze guns. Sound and dense castings can he obtained by filling with a vertical side runner, so that the metal enters the mould from below and solidifies under the hydrostatic head represented by the vertical height of the runner. A method employed by Sir Joseph Whitworth, of applying hydraulic pressure to the metal in the mould until it solidifies has been adopted with great success by the inventor in the prevention of blow holes and similar imperfections in steel ingots. In "chill casting" a portion of the surface of the whole or a part of the mould is made of cast iron, so that the metal brougat in contact with it is rapidly cooled. It is adopted in the production of Palliser's cast iron projectiles for penetrating armour plates, rolls for boiler and other irou plates, and paper glazing, and in America for hardening the treads of railway wheels. The iron where in contact with the chill surface becomes white, of a platy crystalline structure, and intensely hard, while such portions as are cooled in contact with the sand remain finely granular, dark grey, and comparatively soft. (H. B.) FOUNDLING HOSPITALS are intended to save children from death by exposure, and it is therefore difficult to describe them properly apart from the general subject of infanticide. This practice was extremely common among nearly all ancient nations. It may still be studied in such horrible institutions of savage life as the Areoi of the Society Islands, or the Meebra of New South Wales; and it may be found in the greatest variety of form among the tribes of Hindustan.1 The motives which suggested the Compare Moore on Hindu Infanticide, 1811, with Brown on Indrowned in milk, there is a euphemistic proverb, "The lady's daughter fanticide in Indin, 1868. In Baluchistan, where children are often died drinking milk." 66 practice were sometimes superstitious, more often extremely | Paul, who in the reign of Louis XIII, with the help of practical. As the natives of Gujarat said to Major Walker, the countess of Joigny, Mme, le Gras, and other religious Pay our daughters' marriage portions, and they shall live." ladies, rescued the foundlings of Paris from the horrors of The feeling here was one of social dignity mixed with the a primitive institution named La Couche (Rue St Landry), strong contempt which many savages express for the and ultimately obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the single life. But in most cases children were killed simply Bicêtre for their accommodation. Letters patent were because the parents, having no realized wealth, did not granted to the Paris hospital in 1670. The Hôtel-Dieu of expect to be able to clothe and feed them. This is especi-Lyons was the next in importance. No provision, howally seen in the frequent killing of female children and ever, was made outside the great towns; the houses in the those who are sick or deformed. In some places the cities were overcrowded and administered with laxity; and practice has been confined to the children of concubines, of in 1784 Necker prophesied that the state would yet be stranger fathers, or of mothers dying from sickness. In seriously embarrassed by this increasing evil. From 1452 the earliest society the right to kill belonged to the father, to 1789 the law had imposed on the seigneurs de haut sometimes assisted by a person skilled in omens, or by a justice the duty of succouring children found deserted on council of friends. But the usage soon hardened into a their territories. The first constitutions of the Revolution binding custom or into express legislation. Thus in the undertook as a state debt the support of every foundling. exogamous communities girls were clearly a source, not of For a time premiums were given to the mothers of illegiti weakness only, but of danger. At a much later period the mate children, the "enfants de la patrie." By the law of number of a family, or of the daughters, was often fixed by 12 Brumaire, An II. "Toute recherche de la paternité est law, and both Lycurgus and the Roman decemvirs directed interdite," while by art. 341 of the Code Napoléon, "la the slaughter of deformed children. This violence to the recherche de le matérnité est admise." domestic affections was probably made easier by the notion which appears in Greek science and in Roman law that neither the foetus nor the newly-born child is entitled to the privileges of humanity. The Greek pastoral of Longus (The Loves of Daphnis and Chloe), and the Heautontimorumenos of Terence, show still better than the text of laws how the conscience of a civilized society reconciled itself to such cruelties. And the sober reasoning of Aristotle (Republic, vii. c. 16) goes even beyond the custom of his time. Pliny the elder defends infanticide as a necessary check on population, and Quintilian and Seneca bear witness to the frightful mortality among children exposed, and the systematic mutilation of those who survived. Notwithstanding the eloquent protests of the Christian fathers, it was not till the time of Severus and Caracalla that a Reman lawyer ventured to make the noble statement, "Necare videtur non tantum is qui partum perfocat, sed is qui abjicit et qui alimonia denegat, et is qui publicis locis misericordia causa exponit quam ipse non habet." The legislation of Constantine did not go beyond a declaration that the killing of a son was parricide, but the famous law of Valentinian, Valens, and Gratian (unusquisque suam sobolem nutriat, C. viii. 52, 2) punished exposure by the loss of the patria potestas, and secured the rights of the foster-father. Finally, by Novel 153, Justinian declared that the foundling should no longer be the slave of the foster-father, but Ahould be free. This, however, did not affect western Europe, where social disorder and the recurrence of famine led to extensive sales of children. Against this evil, which was noticed by several councils, the church provided a rough system of relief, children being deposited (jactati) in marble shells at the churca doors, and tended first by the matricularii or male nurses, and then by the nutricarii or foster-parents. Nothing is known of the brephotrophia which are said to have existed in the Eastern empire at this time, nor of the public tables (such as Velleiana, Bobiana) which particular emperors are said to have provided for the support of children. The earlier traditions of a hospital at the Cynosarges in Athens and at the Columna Lactaria in the vegetable market at Rome are disputed. It is in the 7th and 8th centuries that definite institutions for foundlings are established in such towns as Trèves, Milan, and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias, archbishop of Valentia, is a conspicuous figure in this charitable work; but his fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de 1 Seo Julius Paulus, sive de partus expositione et nece apud veteres, by Gerard Noodt, 1700, criticized by Bynkershoek, De Jure occidendi, vendendi, et exponendi liberos apud Romanos, 1719. See Capitularia Regum. Francorum, ii. 474. France. The present laws of France relating to this part of what is called L'Assistance Publique are the decree of January 1811, the instruction of February 1823, the decree of 5th March 1852, and the law of 5th May 1869. These laws carry out the general prin. ciples of the law of 7th Frimaire An V., which completely decentralized the system of national poor relief established by the Revolu tion. The "enfants assistés "include, besides orphans and foundlings proper, infants brought by their parents into the asylum, and those born in lying-in hospitals and left there by their mothers, children of persons undergoing a judicial sentence, children temporarily taken in while their parents are in the hospital, and an increasing number of children, fegitimate, illegitimate, and orphans, who are supported by a system of out-door relief. The asyluin which receives them is a departmental and not a communal institution. The state pays only the cost of inspection and superintendence. There remain the "home" expenses, for the nurse (nourrice sédentaire), washing, and clothes; and the "out-door" expenses, which include (1) temporary assistance to unmarried mothers in order to prevent desertion; (2) allowances to the fosterfathers (pères nourriciers) in the country for board, school money, &c.; (3) clothing; (4) travelling money for nurses and children; (5) printing, &c.; and (6) expenses in time of sickness and for of which 2,570,171 frs. were paid by the regular foundling asylums, burials and apprentice fees. In 1868 the total cost was 11,300,171 frs., and 8,730,000 fra by the departments and communes. This represented the support of 67,000 children. In 1828 there were 112,730 children supported at a cost of 9,794,737 frs. The decrease is the "tours," of which there were 235 in 1812, and only 25 in attributed partly to out-door relief and partly to the suppression of 1860. No payments are made for the children after the age of twelve. They are generally apprenticed to a peasant or artisan, and until majority they remain under the guardianship of the adininistrative commissioners of the department. These commissioners are about to receive a representative character, the councils of the communes and the department, the chambers of commerce, and the chief religious communities receiving a right of nomination, as well as the prefect who represents the state. The ministry of marine have a legal claim to the services of male foundlings, which is payment of a small fee. The decree of 1811 contemplated the repayseldom exercised. The droit de recherche is conceded to the parent on ment of all expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree directed a "tour" or revolving box (Drehcylinder in Germany) to be kept at each hospital. These have been gradually discontinued. the law of 10th January 1849. The "Assistance Publique" of Paris is specially provided for by The management consists of a "directeur" appointed by the minister of the interior, and associated with a representative "conseil de surveillance." The Paris Asylum for Enfants Trouvés, with a small branch at Forges, contains about 700 beds. It receives about 4200 children in the year, or nearly one-seventh of the whole annual supply in France; and the total average cost of each child for twelve years is said to be only 1500 frs. There is also in Paris (43 Rue de Journelles) a private charity called Euvre de l'Adoption for the adoption of poor children and orphans. the hospitals at very small rates of board are those of M. Fournet Among the better known school farms which receive children from at Montagny near Chalon-sur-Saône, and of l'Abbé Vedey at Varaignes in the Dordogne. It is impossible here to give even a De l'Administration des Finances, iii. 136; seo also the article "Enfant Exposé" in Diderot's. Encyclopédie, 1755, and Chamousset's Mémoire politique sur les Enfants, 1757. sketch of the long and able controversies which have occurred in France on the principles of managemnent of foundling hospitals, the advantages of "tours" and the system of admission à bureau ouvert, the transfer of orphans from one department to another, the free communication between parent and child, the hygiène and service of hospitals and the inspection of nurses, the education and reclamation of the children and the rights of the state in their future. Reference may be made to the work of Terme and Montfalcon noticed at the end of this article. A Belgium.-In this country the arrangements for the relief of foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpose very much resemble those in France, and can hardly be usefully described apart from the general questions of local government and poor law administration. The Commissions des Hospices Civiles, however, are purely communal bodies, although they receive pecuniary assistance from both the departments and the state. decree of 1811 directed that there should be an asylum and a wheel for receiving foundlings in every arrondissement. The last "wheel," that of Antwerp, was closed in 1860. The present law of 30th July 1884 distinguishes foundlings born of unknown parents from infants abandoned by known parents. Of the former the cost is divided between commune and province; of the latter the cost falls entirely on the domicile de secours. The law of 1834 directs that the state budget shall contain an annual foundling subsidy, which is distributed among the provinces. The suppression of the "wheels" is supposed to have reduced the subsidy from 94,608 frs. to 50,000 frs. in 1873, and the number of foundlings from 7703 in 1849 to 5745 in 1860. The great mass of the foundlings are in Brabant, that is, in Brussels, which in 1872 paid out nearly 300,000 frs. on their account. In the Netherlands many of the foundlings are sent to the "beggar colonies,"-agricultural, spinning, and weaving establishments introduced in 1810 in imitation of the French dépôts de mendicité. They also resemble the Flemish écoles agricoles de réforme. (See Des Institutions de Bienfaisance et de Prévoyance en Belgique, 1850 à 1860, par M. P. Lentz.) Italy is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphans and other destitute children being separately provided for. Piedmont has 18, making an annual expenditure of 1,084,000 frs.; Genoa has 6, with an expenditure of 350,000 frs.; Lombardy has 13, with an expenditure of 1,468,000 frs.; and the Emilia has 15, with an expenditure of 833,000 frs. In 1870 the gross expenditure in Italy on foundlings alone was 8,044,754 frs., more than twice the sum expended on pauper lunatics. The law concerning charitable works (3d August 1862) contemplates the erection of a charity board in every commune. At present both the communal council and the provincial deputation have certain rights of control over charitable administration. (See Della Carita Preventiva in Italia, by Signor Fano.) In Rome one branch of the St Spirito in Bassia (so called from the Schola Saxonum built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the time of Pope Sixtus IV., been devoted to foundlings. For ten years before 1869 the annual average of children admitted was 1141, of whom 382 were ascertained to be illegitimate and 300 legitimate, the rest uncertain. The average annual number of foundlings supported is 3268, the average annual deaths 981. The death-rate in the hospital is said to be 88-78; in the country at the nursing houses 12.80. The Conservatory is for the support of foundling girls who after passing through the hospital do not get settled in life. The whole institution costs 305,603 frs. per annum. (See The Charitable Institutions of Rome, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Naples the foundling hospital is called "l'Annunziata. It receives yearly about 2000 figli della Madonna," as they are called. It must not be confounded with the more famous Albergo Reclusorio, or Seraglio dei Poveri, which is an ordinary charity for the education of children and the maintenance of infirm old persons. The chief house at Florence is called "degli Innocenti "; at Genoa, the "Pammatone"; at Milan, "Santa Caterina alla ruota." In Venice the Casa degli Esposti or foundling hospital, founded in 1846, and receiving 450 children annually, was recently separated from the "Riunione di Instituti Pii," and placed under provincial administration. The splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, is applied to the support of about 160 children by the "Congregazione di Carita " acting through 30 parish boards (deputazione fraternate). Aastria.-In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very prominent place in the general instructions which, by rescript dated 16th April 1781, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment commission. Acting under the advice of Count Boucquoy, the author of The Neighbourly Love Association, which supplied first Bohemia and then the empire with a type of poor law administration, the emperor provided for the case of destitute children before proceeding to deal with the cases of destitute sick and infirm poor. This class of children includes, besides foundlings proper, the children born in lying-in hospitals of unmarried women, and the children of unmarried women who can show that they have 1 For the history of the Misericordia and Bigallo (White Cock), founded by the Brothers of Mercy, see Horner's Walks in Florence, vol L been suddenly confined when on their way to the lying-in hospital, and even in some cases legitimate children whose parents are prevented by illness or other temporary cause from maintaining them, and orphans when below the age required for admission to a regular orphanage. In 1818 these foundling asylums and the lying-in houses were declared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported by the state treasury until the fundamental law of 20th October 1860 handed them over to the provincial committees. They are now local institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite separate from the ordinary parochial poor insti tuté. Admission is gratuitous when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent by a criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for four months as nurse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a certificate from the parish priest and "poorfather" (the parish inspector under the Boucqugy scheme) that sho has no money. In other cases payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two months old the child is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the neighbourhood of respectable married persons, who have certificates from the police or the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected by the latter and by a special medical officer. These persons receive a constantly diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be determined by 14 days' notice on either side. The foster-parents may retain the child in their service or employ. ment till the age of twenty-two, but the true parents may at any time reclaim the foundling on reimbursing the asylum and compensating the foster-parents. The enlightened principles of the Fescript of 1781, with regard to the general and technical education of the children, do not seem to be carried out in practice. It is said that there are in the empire 35 foundling hospitals, receiving annually 120,000 children. Turkey.-Under the Greek system of vestry relief, which works very efficiently at Constantinople, a large sum is spent on found. lings. There is no hospital, but the children are brought before the five members (extropoi) of the vestry (fabrique) or parish church committee, who, acting as the coumbaros or god-father, board out the child with some poor family for a small monthly payment, and afterwards provide the child with some sort of remunerative work. Russia. Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings were received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by the state. But since the reign of Catherine II. the foundling hospitals have been in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity (prykaz obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions (Vospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch at Gatchina) were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought the baptisinal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the child may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse her child. After the usual period of six years in the country very great eare is taken with the education, especially of the more promising children. Of the 26,000 sent annually to these two houses from all parts of Russia, only 25 per cent. are said to reach majority. The hospital is still, however, a valuable source of recruits for the public service. Malthus (The Principles of Population, vol. i. p. 434) has made a violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues that they discourage marriage and therefore population, and that the best management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He adds: "An occasional child murder from false shame is saved at a very high price if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some of the best and most useful feelings of the human heart in a great part of the nation." It does not appear, however, that the rate of illegitimacy in Russia is comparatively high; it is so in the two great cities. The rights of parents over the children were very much restricted, and those of the Government much extended by a ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas in 1837. The most eminent Russian writer on this subject is M. Gouroff. See his Recherches sur les Enfants Trouvès, and Essai sur l'histoire des Enfants Trouvés, Paris, 1829. In America the foundling hospitals are chiefly private charities. There is a large one called the Cuna in the city of Mexico. The house for girls at Rio de Janeiro is once a year frequented by men in want of wives, each application being considered by the managers. In Brazil there are several houses of mercy for foundlings, and exposures are often made at the doors of private houses. The foundling asylum of the sisters of charity in New York was opened in 1869. In 1873 it received 1124 infants not three weeks old. The annual cost is 115,000 dollars. A crib is placed in the vestibule at night, and the name and date of birth are generally left with the child. Great Britain.-The Foundling Hospital of London was incer porated by Royal Charter in 1739" for the maintenance and ednication of exposed and deserted young children." The petition of Captain Thomas Coram, who is entitled to the whole credit of the foundation, states ns its objects "to prevent the frequent murders of poor miserable children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman custom of exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets." At first no questions were asked about child or parent, but a distin. Addison had suggested such a charity (Guardian, No. 3). |