nance of Italian terms in musical language. This artificial developement of the song was promoted by the introduction of soprano singers on the stage, which destroyed the possibility of poetic truth in dramatic representation. The voice was cultivated to the highest degree by means of the numerous conservatorios and singing schools. To this was added the great encouragement and the extravagant rewards of distinguished singers (Farinelli purchased a duchy); the great opportunities afforded for singing (as every place of consequence in Italy had its theatre, and many had several); besides which, music is an essential part of the service of the Catholic church, and castration was permitted ad honorem Dei, as a papal brief expresses it. The excessive culture of the voice must necessarily lead to the treatment of it as an instrument, to the neglect of poetical expression. Instrumental music, too, in this case, necessarily becomes subordinate. Instrumental music should not indeed overpower the song, as is the case in much of the French and German music; but in the Italian music, the composer is almost restricted to showing off the singer, and cannot develope the fullness and depth of harmony which depends upon the mingling of consonance and dissonance. This is the reason why the masterpieces of Mozart have never entirely satisfied the Italians. Among the best composers, since the 17th century, are Girolamo Frescobaldi, Francesco Foggia, Bapt. Lully, the celebrated violinist and composer Arcangelo Corelli. To the singers, of whom the most were also composers, belong Antimo Liberati, Matteo Simonelli, both singers in the chapel of the pope. In the beginning of the 18th century, Ant. Caldara was distinguished. He increased the effect of the singing by the addition of instruments, but his style partook much of the theatrical. There were, besides, Brescianello, Toniri and Marotti. In the middle of this century, Italian music, especially theatrical, flourished, particularly at Naples, Lisbon, and also in Berlin. This has been declared by some the most brilliant period of Italian music. There are some distinguished instrumentalists in Italy, as the organists Scarlatti and Martinelli, the violinist Tartini (who, even in the theory of his instrument, was distinguished, and established a school, which was devoted particularly to the church style), Domenico Ferrari, Geminiani, Ant. Lolli and Nardini, scholars of Tartini,

also the player upon the harpsichord and composer, Clementi, in London, and Paganini. Among the composers of the 18th century, are mentioned Traelta, who, through his refinements, injured the simplicity of composition; Galuppi, distinguished by simple and pleasing song, rich invention and good harmony; Jomelli (q. v.), who gave greater importance to, instrumental music; Maio; 'Nic. Porpora, the founder of a new style of singing, distinguished for his solfeggios in church music; Leo; Pergolesi, whose music is always delightful, from its simple beauty (e. g. his Stabat Mater); Pater Martini, at Bologna; the sweet Piccini, rival of Gluck; Anfossi; the agreeable Sacchini (Edip.); Sarti. (q. v.) Of a later date are Paesiello (q. v.), Cimarosa, the ornament of the opera buffa, and Zingarelli (Romeo and Juliet), Nasolini, Paganini, Niccolini, Pavesi, and the now much celebrated Generali and the copious Rossini. More like the Germans were Salieri (q. v.), and the thorough Righini (he likewise has written solfeggios). Cherubini and Spontini have more of the French character. Among the celebrated male and female singers of Italy, since the 18th century, are Francesca Cuzzoni Sandoni, and her rival Faustina Bordoni (afterwards the wife of Hasse), and the Allegrandi, the sopranists Farinelli, Caffarelli, Genesino, Caristini, Marchesi: in later times, the celebrated Crescentini and Veluti; also the singers Baldassore Ferri, Siface Matteuce; the tenorists Millico, Pacchierotti, Brixi Benelli; the female singers Tesi, Mingotti, Gabrielli, Todi, Vandi, Marchetti, the sisters Sessi, particularly Imperadrice and Mariana Sessi, Angelica Catalani, Camporesi, Borgondio. The Italian school is yet unequalled in whatever depends upon the mere improvement of the voice; but the slavish imitation of their manner leads to affectation; therefore the German singers employ it no farther than they can without losing the spirit and poetical expression which the German song aims at.

Travels in Italy. No part of Europe has been so much visited as Italy, and none deserves to be visited more than this charming country, where a cloudless sky sheds perpetual brilliancy on the monuments of ancient greatness and the relics of ancient art, which conspire with the finest works of modern genius, to delight the eye, and to carry back the mind to the great men and great events of former times. The sight of modern Italy led Gibbon to write the sad story of the decline of her ancient gran

deur; and how many poets have owed to Italy their inspiration! It is impossible to see Italy and not feel the grave monitions of history, or to pass through her happy vineyards without being cheered by the scene, or to gaze on her works of genius without feeling the worth and the dignity of the fine arts. No wonder, then, that Italy is visited from all quarters. During the general peace in Europe, from 1815 until 1830, crowds of foreigners, particularly Englishmen, hastened to the beautiful peninsula. The latter were so numerous, that the lower classes of Italy called every foreigner un Inglese. Among these there were, of course, great numbers who, without capacity for enjoying what they saw, hurried through the country according to the direction of their guide-books, in order to be able to say, at the tea-tables in London, How beautiful the view from Monte Pincio is! Every one who has been in Rome must have met with such a traveller, his Vasari in his hand, working his way with servile conscientiousness, through the beauties of the place. Expedition being an object with many of them, the shortest process for seeing all that was to be seen was soon found out, and flocks of travellers, at particular seasons, migrated to particular places. The average period of a jaunt through Italy is six months. The end of the journey is usually Naples, from which travellers advance south as far as the ruins of Pæstum. The Alps must be passed early in the autumn. The fairy islands of the Lago Maggiore, at that time, still wear their delightful drapery of fruits and leaves. The traveller then enters, at once, the south of Europe, so different from the north. For visiting the principal places in Upper Italy, the Bolognese and Tuscany, there are two months before the beginning of the carnival, which, of course, must be enjoyed in Rome. After having visited the galleries and monuments in and about Rome, the traveller proceeds, during Lent, to Naples, to see the spring awaken in the Campagna. At Easter, be returns to Rome. Who could visit Italy without hearing the heavenly music in the Capella Sistina, during Passion week! There will perhaps be time, on the return, to make an excursion to the Mark of Ancona; if not, no one, who has been to Rome through Sienna, will now fail to take the road through Terni, Perugia and Arezzo. Genoa and Venice, as the most western and eastern points, are convenient to begin or close the journey with. It may be better, however, to begin with Lombardy and Genoa, in the autumn, and

not to extend the period of return far into the hot season. Lombardy attracts but little, after Rome, Florence and Naples, have been visited; but Venice, silent, melancholy Venice, still remains an object of interest, even in her decrepitude under the Austrian sway. Such a journey will occupy from the beginning of October until the middle of May, and will enable the traveller to see the finest parts of the country and the most remarkable works of art. But to become thoroughly acquainted with Italy, as it is and as it was, no one can stay long enough. Rome alone will fully occupy a man's life. He who wishes to become particularly acquainted with the middle ages, and to form a lively picture of them, will remain longer in Florence and Pisa. Late in a moonshiny night, when every thing is quiet, walk through the streets of Florence, and you may easily imagine yourself a contemporary with the Medici. He who wishes to devote himself to the antique or to Roman history, will stay longer in the alma città. Here he will also find himself at the fountain head of sacred music. He who desires to enjoy the beauties of a bountiful nature, will remain longer in Naples, lying like a paradise surrounded by the fields of Campagna, where the gigantic vine twines round the lofty poplars, and forms an embowering shade over the luxuriant grain. He who prefers to see a country where nature and man have not been much influenced by civilization, will proceed to Calabria and Sicily, which afford also the richest harvest to the botanist and mineralogist. He who wishes to become more fully acquainted with the history of the fine arts in the middle ages, will go to the smaller places, distant from the great roads, where he will find innumerable treasures, often unknown to most Italians themselves; as the historian finds rich treasures in the manuscripts stored up in the monasteries, illustrative of the contests of Italian powers among themselves in the middle ages, as well as of the great contest between the secular and ecclesiastical powers, the emperor and the pope: and what a boundless field is spread before the scholar in the Vatican! There are two ways of travelling in Italy, with post-horses (in which case a carriage belonging to the traveller is almost indispensable), or with the vetturino (in a hired coach). He who travels without a family, and wishes to become acquainted with the people, will do best to adopt the latter mode. The traveller makes his bargain with the vetturino, not only for

conveyance, but also for supper and lodging. The general price for the conveyance, from 35 to 40 miles a day, together with the meal and lodging, is about a ducat, per day. As the reputation of a vetturing depends upon the good treatment of his travellers, it is his interest to procure a good meal and a clean bed; thus travellers are spared the trouble of bargaining with the host. That the innkeepers in Italy have a general disposition to fleece the traveller, is certain; and this leads many travellers, particularly English, not to touch a trifle in any inn without making a bargain; for which very reason they are regularly overreached. The same disposition makes many English travellers so troublesome in Germany, where, the living being cheap, they expect to pay next to nothing in the first hotels, so that some hotels have actually refused to admit them. In large cities, where the traveller expects to stay some time, his best rule will be to make a fair bargain after the first day, when he knows what he has to expect. Another great inconvenience for travellers arises from the ciceroni or servitori di piazza. These people, who have a share of what the custodi and the poorer possessors of some single curiosities receive from the travellers, have an interest in directing the trav eller to every corner where an inscription, a piece of a column, &c., is to be found. But how to avoid this, since a cicerone is indispensable? Two general rules may be found serviceable; not to attend, in Italy, to any thing but what is peculiar to Italy; collections of minerals, Japan porcelain, &c., are to be found in other countries; and, secondly, to prepare one's self for the journey, and to know beforehand, in general, what is to be seen. Of course, these rules are only for those who do not stay for a long time in a place, and have no time to make acquaintances for themselves. Three nations, particularly, have furnished descriptions of Italy, the English, Germans and French. We recollect to have seen a very old and curious little book, a Guide through Italy for Pilgrims. The images of the virgin, miraculous relics, &c., of course formed the great mass of the book; but antiques, columns, &c., had received a Christian character, and were named after the apostles, &c. The works of which we here speak, properly begin toward the end of the 17th century, at which time the descriptions of Italy assume a more independent character. Since that time, the number has, particularly of late, greatly increased, so

that this branch of literature, in Germany, is almost in disrepute. Among the earlier works in English, the most esteemed are those of Burnet, Addison, and the others mentioned below. Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, travelled, in voluntary exile, through France, Germany, Switzerland and Italy, in 1685. His observations relate principally to religion and politics, on which subjects his views are those of a zealous Protestant and Whig. His work was succeeded by that of Addison-Remarks on several Parts of Italy (1705), chiefly devoted to antiquityand the less known works of John Breval (1726) and Edward Wright (1727). The journal of the French emigrant Blainville, who had become naturalized in England, appeared after his death, and was edited by Turnbull and Guthrie in 1742. The remarks of these travellers are chiefly directed to the classical antiquities of Italy, and they therefore have been designated by the name of classical travellers. Smollett's travels treat chiefly of modern Italy and the inhabitants, and are full of a morbid querulousness. The same is true of Sharp's. Barretti defended his country from the attacks of Smollett and Sharp, in his Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy (1767). John Moore's View of Society and Manners in Italy is still interesting, and is rich in characteristic anecdotes. Patrick Brydone's picturesque description of Sicily is too celebrated to be passed over in silence, though it relates merely to that island. Among the numerous recent publications on Italy, few have acquired reputation in foreign countries. We may mention Forsyth's Remarks on Antiquities, Arts and Manners during an Excursion in Italy in 1802-3 (London, 1813). Eustace's Classical Tour through Italy (1802, in 2 vols., much enlarged in 1817, in 4 vols.) is prejudiced and inaccurate. Lady Morgan's Italy betrays the novelist. It is not to be recommended as a guide through Italy. The Florentine A. Vieusseux, who left his country in early youth, and entered the British service, travelled through Italy, and wrote Italy and the Italians in the 19th Century (London, 1824, 2 vols.). Among the other English books, of travels in Italy, which have appeared within the last ten years, may be mentioned Bell's Observations on Italy. Simond's valuable Tour in Italy and Sicily appeared in 1828; Narrative of three Years' Residence in Italy appeared in London, 1828; Lyman's Political State of Italy, Boston, 1820; Rembrandt Peale's Notes on Italy, Philadel

phia, 1831; Bigelow's Tour in Sicily and Malta, Boston, 1831. Of the French works on this subject, we may cite first the work of Maximilian Misson, a counsellor of parliament(in 1691),much read at the time in England and Germany. The works of Rogissart (1706), of Grosley (Mémoires sur l'Italie par deux Gentilshommes Suédois, 1764), and of madame du Boccage (1765), did not preserve their reputation long. The abbé Richard's Description de l'Italie, &c. (1766, 6 vols.) was useful, as was also the work of Lalande (most complete edition, 1767), written on the same plan. It is a systematic description of a tour, and is the basis of the German work of Volkmann. Dupaty's popular Lettres sur l'Italie (1788) are recommended by elegance of style and warm feeling. Their matter is not important, and affords little information to the travel ler. The Corinna of madame de Stäel does not belong to this branch of literature in form, but it does in substance. It is a noble production throughout, and even where the views are erroneous, they are nevertheless instructive. The Lettres sur l'Italie, par A. L. Castellan (Paris, 1819, 3 vols.), are entertaining and instructive. Germany, which is fertile in every branch of literature, is so in descriptions of Italy, or travels in Italy. There are some excellent works in German, treating of the scientific treasures of Italy; but this is not the place to enumerate them. The German descriptions of Italy are often characterized either by a minute collection of facts, without much attention to agreeable arrangement, or a romantic exaggeration, which arrays all Italy in heavenly colors, and inhales fragrance from the very immondezza. The learned Keyssler, who wrote in 1740, complains of a host of predecessors. His work (which was augmented in 1751 and 1776) was followed by a number of translations and rifacciamenti of English and French works, particularly the excellent account of Volkmann, already mentioned (in 1770 and 1771, with additions by Bernouilli since 1777,6 vols.). A new continuation and correction of this work would afford a very useful manual for travellers. Archenholz's Italien (1785, augmented in 1787) represents the country according to English views. Jagemann opposed him in a vindication of Italy (Deutsches Museum, 1786). To this class of works belong Göthe's Fragments on Italy, published at the end of the last century, and his Journal, published but a few years since. Count Leopold von Stolberg (1794) wrote a description of his journey. Frederica Brun, Küttner (1796 and 1801),

E. M. Arndt, Seume (his Spaziergang nach Syrakus is a work fitted to gratify a sound mind, and appears to advantage among the host of sentimental publications, though it is by no means a guide), Gerning, Benkowitz and J. H. Eichholz, are among the legion of writers on Italy. Kotzebue poured out his satirical spirit, also, on this country. P. J. Rehfues has, since 1807, published several works on Italy. Madame von der Recke's Journal was translated into French by Mad. de Montolieu, and is a compendious travelling library, which touches on almost every thing important to a traveller. Kephalides (1818) unites much information with animated description. F. H. von der Hagen's (1818-1821, 4 vols.) work is valuable, particularly for its observations on the arts in the middle ages, as attention is generally paid only to classical art, and to the modern since the time of Raphael. Müller's Rom, Römer und Römerinnen has met with applause as a picture of manners and customs. There exist a number of descriptions of parts of Italy, which we have not room to enumerate. On Sicily, one of the latest works is Voyage en Sicile fait en 1820 et 1821, par Auguste de Sayve (Paris, 1825, 3 vols.). Neigebaur's Handbuch für Reisende in Italien (Leipsic, 1826) contains much information of value to travellers. Among the works which portray the beauties of Italian nature, one of the best is Vues pittoresques de l'Italie, by Coignet, drawn after nature and lithographized (Paris, 1825).

ITE, MISSA EST (Latin, go-the meeting is dissolved); a formula by which, on joyful feasts, the end of the low mass is announced to the people, and the assembly dismissed. The priest steps into the centre of the altar, and sings these words after the Dominus vobiscum. After a mass for the dead, instead of these words, he sings, Requiescat in pace, on which the response is, Amen. In Lent, Advent and the days of penitence, he says, Benedicamus Domino, to which the response is Deo gratias. The word mass is derived from missa est.

ITHACA (10αkn), or, as it is called by the moderns, Thiaki; one of the seven Ionian islands (q. v.) lying in the gulf of Patras ; fon. 21° 1′ E., lat. 38° 36′ N.; 18 miles long, and not over 5 broad; population, 8000. The whole island is rugged and uneven. Ithaca is celebrated as the island of Ulysses, and is minutely described by Homer in the Odyssey. Of the places mentioned by Homer, many can be traced with great appearance of probability. The Kopakos Terpa (Od. xiii. 403) is still

called Coraco-petra. The ruins of Cyclopean walls are described as similar to those of Argos, Tiryns and Mycena. The spring of Ithacus and the walls of the city, as well as the Acropolis, can also be traced. A sculptured, rock, called Homer's school, somewhat resembles that which bears the same name in Scio (Chios). Pateras, vases, bracelets, chains, strigils, mirrors, lamps, coins, &c., have been dug up in an ancient burying-ground

here.

ITHACA, a large and flourishing village of the state of New York, is beautifully situated about a mile and a half south of the head of the Cayuga lake, being 170 miles west of Albany; population about 4500. It has an academy, including a lyceum, a bank, a court-house and jail, a market-house, a Lancasterian schoolhouse, and four houses of public worship. The Clinton house is a large and elegant house of entertainment. There are three printing-offices, from which issue three weekly papers. The scenery around the village is romantic and pleasing. The hills about three miles from the village are from 300 to 500 feet high. Ithaca has five durable mill streams. Fall creek, the largest, descends, within one mile of the village, 438 feet, over several stupendous cataracts, and, winding across the plain, enters the head of the Cayuga lake. The view of the last fall into the valley, is striking and grand. The whole sheet of water is precipitated over the rock 116 feet, and the banks above are 100 feet higher than the rock. The Cayuga inlet, passing through the village to the lake, is navigable for boats of 40 or 50 tons. The navigation is perfectly good through the lake, Seneca and Cayuga canal, to the Erie canal. There are, already, manufactories of cotton and wool, flour, paper and oil, iron founderies, &c., although but a few of the many valuable inill sites are occupied.

ITURBIDE, Augustin, was born at Valladolid de Mechoacan, in New Spain, in 1784. Being of a family of some consideration in his country, he received a very careful education. Until 1810, he held no higher rank than that of a lieutenant in the provincial regiment of his native city. At this period, when the troubles in Mexico broke out, he entered into active service against the patriots, and was engaged in various contests with bodies of his insurgent countrymen. Borné along by circumstances in the career of arms, he had risen, in 1816, by his valor and capacity, to the command of what was call

ed the northern army, which occupied the provinces of Guanaxuato and Valladolid. About this time, he was suspected and accused of want of fidelity to their cause, by some of the royalists, but was acquitted of the imputation by the viceroys Calleja and Apodaca. But the disgust which he felt in consequence of this charge, led him to retire for a while from active service. In 1820, we find Iturbide again in the field, under circumstances which gave him unexpected importance. At that period, the imprudent acts of the Spanish cortes produced so much exasperation among the clergy and the partisans of absolutism in Mexico, that these persons united to effect the independence of the country. They selected Iturbide as their agent, knowing his zealous agency in putting down the revolutionists and republicans of past years, and wholly unconscious of the views of personal aggrandizement which he entertained. Being furnished with some money by them, he set out for the south; and, having seized a convoy of specie on his route, he soon formed a junction with Guerrero, one of the patriot chiefs. Meanwhile emissaries had been despatched in all directions to prepare the people, who were accordingly ripe for revolution. At length the army reached Iguala, where (Feb. 24, 1821) Iturbide proposed the plan which bears the name of that place ;-the great objects of this instrument being the independence of Mexico, the protection of religion, and the union of the Spaniards and Mexicans. At the same time, an offer of the crown was made to Ferdinand VII, or to any other member of the royal family of Spain. On the strength of this plan, Iturbide continued his march to Queretaro, and was soon joined by Guadalupe Victoria, the most devoted of the friends of liberty. Meantime the viceroy O'Donoju arrived from Europe, and, finding the whole country virtually with Iturbide, signed a treaty at Cordova (August 24, 1821), acceding to the provisions of the plan of Iguala. The road to power was now entirely open before Iturbide. He took possession of the capital in the name of the nation, and established a regency, consisting of members nominated by himself, and wholly under his control. The republican party soon saw the object of his movements. A congress had been assembled, which made various attempts to counteract his designs by diminishing his power, and at last brought the matter to an open rupture and a crisis. Iturbide, seeing no other way to preserve his au