and trade with the enemies of England, even in time of war; above all, they are free from the taxes with which the mother country is loaded. They are almost wholly occupied in agriculture and commerce. The land is sufficiently adapted for all the common crops, and also for the pasture of cattle, which is practised to some extent; but the singular mildness of the chimate has decided the inhabitants to apply chiefly to the produce of the orchard, and to trust, in a great measure, to their trade for a supply of grain, at least for one third of their consumption. The fruits, therefore, are of the highest flavor; and great quantities of cider, the common beverage, are made annually. Various fortresses have been erected, viz. Elizabeth castle, mount Orgueil, fort Henry, La Rocco, and several others. The coast is also defended by a chain of martello towers, and by numerous redoubts and batteries. The government consists of a court of judicature, and an ecclesiastical body acting separately, and, at the same time, uniting with 12 constables and a military governor, to form the assembly of the states, the legislative body of the island, without whose approbation no law made in England is binding. The governor is appointed by the crown, convokes the assembly, and has a negative voice, which, however, is merely nominal, except where the interest of the crown is concerned. The court of judicature consists of a bailiff and a president, chosen by the crown, 12 jurats, chosen by the householders, and various officers; the clerical court, of a dean and 11 rectors. Remains of antiquities, principally druidical, are found in different parts of the island. The architecture of all the churches is the pointed or Gothic. Various attempts have been made by the French to possess themselves of the island, but without success: the most remarkable was in 1781. Population, 28,600; 75 miles from Weymouth, the nearest shore of England; and from Carteret and Boil, the nearest of the French ports, 17. Lon. of St. Aubin, 2° 11′ W.;

lat. 49° 13′ N.

JERUSALEM (Heb. Salem; hence the Greek Hierosolyma, the sacred Solyma, and the Turkish Soliman). This celebrated city of Palestine is subject to the pacha of Damascus. Its environs are barren and mountainous. The city lies on the western declivity of a hill of basalt, surrounded with rocks and deep valleys, with a much colder climate than one would expect from its geographical situation. It is now only about two miles in

circuit. The town is built irregularly, has pretty high walls, and six gates, which still bear Hebrew naines. The houses are of sand-stone, three stories high, and without windows in the lower story. This lifeless uniformity is only diversified, here and there, by the spires of the mosques, the towers of the churches, and a few cypresses. Of 25,000 inhabitants, 13,000 are Mohammedans, and 4000 Jews. Christians and Jews wear a blue turban to distinguish them. The women, in their close veils and white dress, look like walking corpses. The streets are unpaved, and filled either with clouds of dust or with mire. Nothing is to be seen but veiled figures in white, insolent Turks, and stupid or melancholy Christians. That Jerusalem is no place for the cultivation of the arts or sciences one may easily conjecture, from the despotism of the Turks, and the gloomy superstition of the Christians. Weavers and slipper-makers are the only artisans. A multitude of relics, which are, probably, not all manufactured in the city, but are sent in also from the neighborhood, are sold to the credulous pilgrims. Nevertheless, this city forms a central point of trade to the Arabians in Syria, Arabia and Egypt. The people export oil, and import rice by the way of Acre. The necessaries of life are in profusion, and quite cheap, the game excellent, and the wine very good. The pilgrims are always a chief source of support to the inhabitants; at Easter, they often amount to 5000. But few of them are Europeans. Jerusalem has a governor, a cadi or supreme judge, a commander of the citadel, and a mufti to preside over religious matters. There are still many places and buildings in the city designated by ancient sacred names. The citadel, which is pretended to have been David's castle, is a Gothic building throughout. It is also called the Pisan tower, probably because it was built by the Pisans during the crusades. All the pilgrims go to the Franciscan monastery of the Holy Savior, where they are maintained a month gratuitously. Besides this, there are 61 Christian convents in Jerusalem, of which the Armenian is the largest. They are supported by benevolent contributions, principally from Europe. The church of the Holy Sepulchre has been for 1500 years the most sacred place in Jerusalem. It is composed of several churches united, and is said to be erected on Golgotha. Here is shown, in a large subterraneous apartment richly ornamented, the pretended grave of the Savior, with a sarcophagus

of white marble. The empress Helena is reported to have founded this church in the 4th century, fter she had found the true cross. The Jews live in great wretchedness, and are confined to a small part of the city. The temple of the Mohammedans, which is regarded as one of their greatest sanctuaries, is magnificent. No Jew or Christian is permitted to enter the inner sanctuary. This temple consists of two large buildings, of which the one, El Aksa, is adorned with a splendid dome and beautiful gilding. The other edifice is octangular, and is called El Sahara. Here the Mohammedans show the footsteps of their prophet surrounded with a golden grate; and a Koran, which is four feet long, and two and a half broad. On the mount of Olives is to be seen a Christian church, in which is shown a foot-print of the Savior, which he left on the place, when he ascended to heaven. Besides many old Jewish monuments, there are a great many Greek and Roman, several Christian, and, especially, Gothic monuments, which originated in the times of the crusades.-A contemporary of Abraham, Melchisedec, is called king of Salem, 2000 years before Christ: this Salem is supposed to be the Jerusalem of after times. This town then came into the possession of the Jebusites, and when the Israelites conquered the land of promise (B. C. 1500), it was assigned, in the division of the country, to the tribe of Benjamin. The Jebusites, however, appear afterwards to have recovered possession of the place; for David conquered the city, called it after his name, and built the castle of Zion. His son Solomon greatly embellished the city, and caused the temple to be built by the skilful artists of Tyre. Under his successors, Jerusalem was the capital of the kingdom of Judah. Five times it was taken and plundered; first under Rehoboam by the Egyptians, then under Joram by the Arabians, under Joash by the Syrians, under Amaziah by the Israelites, and under Josiah by the Egyptians again (B. C. 611). Herodotus also mentions the last conquest of it, calling the city Kadytas, which resembles Kedushah, the Holy, and the Mohammedans still call the city El Kods. At last, the Chaldean king, Nebuchadnezzar, during the reign of Zedekiah, conquered the kingdom, razed the city to the ground (B. C.586), and carried the Jews to Babylon. Seventy years after, Cyrus gave them permission to return and rebuild the city and temple. This was done under the direction of their high-priests, Ezra

and Nehemiah,whose successors governed them a long time. The story of Alexander's making a pacific visit to Jerusalem, after his conquest of Tyre, is nothing but a Jewish invention, as Josephus is the only author who mentions it. Alexander's successor, Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, captured Jerusalem, and carried a great number of the better sort of Jews to Alexandria. It then remained, for a long time after it was taken by Antiochus the Great, under the jurisdiction of the Syrian kings. Under the Maccabees, the Jews were again free for a considerable time, and chose their own rulers. One of the last of these, Aristobulus, invited Pompey the Great into the country, and thus Jerusalem came under the Roman dominion (B. C. 64). But, as it continued to have its own kings, at least in name, and also high-priests, together with the Roman governors, this occasioned constant troubles, which were finally ended by the destruction of the city and extermination of the inhabitants, by Vespasian and Titus, after a bloody siege (A. D. 70). Some buildings, however, were left among the ruins. The Jews again collected together, built on the place, and again rebelled against the Romans. Provoked by this obstinacy, the emperor Adrian, at last, in the year 118, ordered all that Titus had spared to be destroyed. He commanded a new city to be built in its place, called Elia Capitolina, in which no Jew was permitted to dwell. Constantine the Great, and his mother Helena, from pious motives, ordered all the heathen monuments to be destroyed, and erected many new Christian edifices. Julian conceived the idea of rebuilding the old temple of the Jews, but is said to have been hindered from executing his plan by the eruption of subterranean fire. The city remained under the government of the Eastern emperors till Chosroes, king of Persia, conquered it in the year 614. It was recovered, however, by the emperor Heraclius, in the peace of 628. This prince prohibited the Jews from dwelling there, and so alienated the patriarch of Jerusalem,Sophronius, by sectarian differences, that the Saracen caliph Omar found little difficulty in making himself master of the city (A. D. 637). From the Saracens it passed into the hands of the Turks. In the first crusade, Godfrey of Bouillon took Jerusalem. It was erected into a Christian kingdom, to which the Turks put an end in 1187. Clarke, Chàteaubriand, &c., describe its present state.

JERUSALEM, John Frederic William, was born November 22, 1709, at Osna

burg, where his father was a clergyman, and early displayed great talent. As early as 1724, he entered the university of Leipsic, where he studied theology. He then studied at Leyden, went with two young noblemen to the university of Göttingen, visited London, and was, in 1742, appointed, by the duke of Brunswick, court preacher and tutor of the hereditary prince. The Collegium Carolinum, afterwards so famous, was established on a plan suggested by him. In 1752, he was made abbot of the convent of Niddagshausen, near Brunswick. The chancellorship of the university of Göttingen was offered to him, but he would not leave Brunswick, where his benevolent activity found full exercise. In his old age, his son destroyed himself in consequence of an unfortunate passion for a married lady. This gave rise to Gothe's Sorrows of the young Werther. The father died in 1789, esteemed by all Germany as a theologian, and for the purity and beneficence of his character. His sermons (Brunswick, 1788 -1789, 2 vols.) are still read, as are also his Contemplations on the most Important Truths of Religion (1785 and 1795, 2 vols.) He wrote many other works, and is considered one of the best men of his time in Germany.

JESO, or JEDSO, or YEDSO, or JESSO, or MATSMAI; a large island in the North Pacific ocean, governed by a prince tributary to the emperor of Japan. The inhabitants are more rude and savage than the Japanese. They live chiefly on fish and game. Lon. 140° 10′ to 147° 10′ E.; lat. 42° to 45° N. Square miles, 53,000. Chief town, Matsmai.

JESSE; a man of Bethlehem, who lived by raising cattle; the father of eight sons, of whom David was one. When Saul persecuted the latter, Jesse fled into the land of the Moabites, where he seems to have died, as no mention is made of him after David's accession to the throne.

JESTER, OF COURT FOOL. In the middle ages, every court, secular or ecclesiastical, had its fool, as a necessary appendage; and there are some instances of court jesters in the 18th century. Douce, in his Illustrations of Shakspeare, has a dissertation on the fools and clowns. He states that Muckle John was the last person who regularly held the office of court jester in England, his predecessor, Archy Armstrong, having been sentenced to have his coat pulled over his head, and to be dismissed the king's service, for a sarcasm on Laud (1637). Since the time of the commonwealth, the post of king's fool

has been discontinued, though some private persons had fools late in the last century. Swift wrote an epitaph on Dicky Pearce, the earl of Suffolk's fool (1728). Mr. Douce states that the costume of the domestic fool, in the time of Shakspeare, was of two sorts. The one was a motley or party-colored coat, attached to the body by a girdle, and often having bells on the skirts and elbows. The breeches and hose were in one, and sometimes the legs were of different colors. A hood, resembling a monk's cowl, covered the head completely, and the breast and shoulders partly. It sometimes bore ass's ears, sometimes the neck and head of a cock, and sometimes only the comb of that bird (whence coxcomb, as a term of contempt). The bawble (marotte) was a short stick, terminated with a fool's head, or with that of a doll or puppet. To this was frequently appended a blown bladder, sometimes filled with sand or peas, and employed as a weapon of sportive offence; sometimes a skin or bladder only, and sometimes a club instead of the bawble, and, occasionally, both together. The other dress, which seems to have been most common in the time of Shakspeare, was a long petticoat, of various colors, fringed with yellow. There were, however, many variations from this dress : bells supplied the place of the cock's comb; the head was shaven like a monk's crown; fox tails or squirrel tails were fastened on the clothes, &c. (See Fools, Feast of.)

JESUITS, OF SOCIETY OF JESUS; a religious order, which rose in influence and power far above all the other orders, though strictly prohibiting its members to accept any office in the church, and which, in the art of ruling, excelled the governments of the world no less than its ecclesiastical rivals. No other religious order affords a parallel to this; for, while those who give themselves only to devotion and religious contemplation, present few distinguishing traits, and, for the most part, differ from one another only in their names, in the fashion and color of their dress, the greater or less strictness of their rules, the number of their penances and devotional exercises; and while those of the more active class, who operate abroad by their influence at courts and in families, and by engaging in offices of instruction, pastoral care, or charity, are almost universally but monks, the society of Jesus early raised itself to a degree of historical importance unparal leled in its kind. But a small part of this greatness is to be ascribed to their founder,

Ignatius Loyola (q. v.), who owes his fame more to the shrewd policy and energy of his successors than to the merit of the original scheme of the order. At the university of Paris, Loyola entered into an agreement with some of his fellow students to undertake the conversion of unbelievers, and a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Pierre le Fevre (a Savoyard), Francis Xavier (a native of Navarre), James Lainez and Nicholas Bobadilla (two Spaniards of ardent and powerful minds), and Rodriguez, a Portuguese nobleman, were the first companions of Loyola. A war with the Turks prevented their journey to Jerusalem. They therefore went to different universities in Upper Italy, to gain new associates; Loyola himself went with Le Fevre and Lainez to Rome, where he accomplished, in 1539, his plan of founding a new and peculiarly organized order. He called it the society of Jesus, in consequence of a vision, and bound the members, in addition to the usual vows of poverty, chastity, and implicit obedience to their superiors, to a fourth, viz. to go, unhesitatingly, and without recompense, whithersoever the pope should send them, as missionaries for the conversion of infidels and heretics, or for the service of the church in any other way, and to devote all their powers and means to the accomplishment of the work. The novices, besides spiritual exercises, were to be proved by performing the most menial offices for the sick, Xavier having given the example by sucking the loathsome sores of the sick in the hospitals. A special bull of Paul III, in 1540, established this society, whose object appeared so favorable to the interests of the papal power; and in the following year, the members, assembled in Rome, chose their founder for their first general. He showed himself, however, unequal to the management of great affairs. As general, he was ever pursuing secondary objects, while his learned and more sagacious friends, especially Linez, who was his constant companion, contrived to improve and carry out his rude plans for the advancement of the society. The popes Paul III and Julius III, seeing what a support they would have in the Jesuits against the reformation, which was rapidly gaining ground, granted to them privileges such as no body of men, in church or state, had ever before obtained. They were permitted not only to enjoy all the rights of the mendicant and secular orders, and to be exempt from all episcopal and civil jurisdiction and taxes, so that they acknowledged no authority but that of the

pope and the superiors of their order, and were permitted to exercise every priestly function, parochial rights notwithstanding, among all classes of men, even during an interdict, but also (what is not even permitted to the archbishops unconditionally), they could absolve from all sins and ecclesiastical penalties, change the objects of the vows of the laity, acquire churches and estates without further papal sanction, erect houses for the order, and might, according to circumstances, dispense themselves from the observance of canonical hours of fasts and prohibitions of meats, and even from the use of the breviary. Besides this, their general was invested with unlimited power over the members; could send them on missions of every kind, even amongst excommunicated heretics; could appoint them professors of theology at his discretion, wherever he chose, and confer academical dignities, which were to be reckoned equal to those given by universities. These privileges, which secured to the Jesuits à spiritual power almost equal to that of the pope himself, together with a greater immunity, in point of religious observance, than the laity possessed, were granted them to aid their missionary labors, so that they might accommodate themselves to any profession or mode of life, among heretics and infidels, and be able, wherever they found admission, to organize Catholic churches without a further authority. But the latitude in which they understood their rights and immunities gave occasion to fear an unlimited extension and exercise of them, dangerous to all existing authority, civil and ecclesiastical, as the constitution of the order, and its erection into an independent monarchy in the bosom of other governments, assumed a more fixed character. A general dispersion of the members throughout society, with the most entire union and subordination, formed the basis of their constitution. The society of Jesus was accordingly divided into several ranks or classes. The novices, who were chosen from the most talented and well educated youths and men, without regard to birth and external circumstances, and were tried, for two years, in separate novitiate-houses, in all imaginable exercises of self-denial and obedience, to determine whether they would be useful to the purposes of the order, were not ranked among the actual members, the lowest of whom are the secular coadjutors, who take no monastic vows, and may therefore be dismissed. They serve the order partly as subalterns, partly as confederates, and may

be regarded as the people of the Jesuit state. Distinguished laymen, public officers, and other influential personages (e. g. Louis XIV in his old age), were sometimes honored with admission into this class, to promote the interests of the order. Higher in rank stand the scholars and spiritual coadjutors, who are instructed in the higher branches of learning, take upon them solemn monastic vows, and are bound to devote themselves particularly to the education of youth. These are, as it were, the artists of the Jesuit community, are employed as professors in academies, as preachers in cities and at courts, as rectors and professors in colleges, as tutors and spiritual guides in families which they wish to gain or to watch, and as assistants in the missions. Finally, the nobility, or highest class, is made up of the professed, amongst whom are admitted only the most experienced members, whose address, energy and fidelity to the order have been eminently tried and proved. They make profession, i. e. take the vows of their order, by binding themselves, in addition to the common monastic vows, by a fourth vow, to the undertaking of missions; and, when they are not living together in pious ease in their professedhouses, they serve as missionaries among heathens and heretics, as governors of colonies in remote parts of the world, as father-confessors of princes, and as residents of the order in places where it has no college. They are entirely exempt, on the other hand, from the care of the education of youth. None but the professed have a voice in the election of a general, who must himself be of their number, and who has the right of choosing from them the assistants, provincials, superiors and rectors. The general holds his office for life, and has his residence in Rome, where he is attended by a monitor and five assistants or counsellors, who also represent the five chief nations, the Italians, Germans, French, Spanish and Portuguese. He is the centre of the government of the whole order, and receives monthly reports from the provincials, and one every quarter from the superiors of the professed-houses, from the rectors of the colleges (which are the monasteries of the order, but with nothing very monastic about them), and from the masters of the novitiates. These reports detail all remarkable occurrences, political events, and the characters, capacities and services of individual members, and thereupon the general directs what is to be done, and how to make use of tried and approved

members. All are bound to obey him implicitly, and even contrary to their own convictions. There is no appeal from his orders. He may even alter particular rules of the society, expel members without trial, or exile them by sending them away to some distant place, and inflict or remit punishments at his pleasure. Ignatius Loyola, who died July 31, 1556, at Rome, left to the order the sketch of this constitution, and a mystical treatise called Exercitia Spiritualia (Spiritual Exercises), the use of which was formally introduced among the Jesuits, and occupies the first four weeks of every novice. This pious enthusiast, but by no means great man, obtained a lasting fame, and the honor of canonization (1622), by the rapid increase of his order, which, as early as 1556, numbered 1000 members in 12 provinces. The first was Portugal, where Xavier and Rodriguez, at the invitation of the king, had founded colleges. The increase of the Jesuits was no less rapid in the Italian states, where they were supported by the influence of the pope; in Spain, where they were, at first, opposed by the bishops, but soon prevailed through the example of the nobility, especially of one of the most powerful grandees, Francis Borgia, duke of Candia, who became an Inighist (as the Jesuits were called in Spain, after their founder, Inigo); and in Catholic Germany, where Austria and Bavaria granted them privileges and foundations. At the universities of Vienna, Prague and Ingolstadt, they obtained an ascendency which they held for two centuries. In their strict hierarchical principles, in their restless, zealous activity, and in their success in making converts, the Catholic princes, as well as the pope himself, found the most effectual barrier against the growing power of Protestantism. Even to the common people they soon recommended themselves, as the offspring of the new spirit of the times, and were, therefore, readily favored by persons who were idisposed to the monks. For institutions which would not adopt the tendency of the age towards practical improvement and a more cheerful tone of conduct, could no longer succeed, after the restoration of learning and sound reasoning; the excited world preferred business to contemplation, and the mendicant monks, who had every where pushed themselves into notice, had passed their most splendid epoch. Those who disliked the Franciscans as too coarse and vulgar, and the Dominicans as too rigid and gloomy, were the better pleased with the polished,