entering into the army, he gradually rose to the rank of colonel. In 1755, he was appointed to the command of an expedition fitted out against the French fort of Crown Point, when, though the main object of the undertaking was not effected, the colonel defeated a body of Indian, Canadian and French troops, commanded by baron Dieskau, who was taken prisoner. The British general was rewarded for his conduct on this occasion by a baronetcy, and a gratuity from parliament of £5000. He had settled on the Mohawk river, acquired a considerable estate, and ingratiated himself both with the American settlers and the neighboring Indians. His ability as a negotiator was displayed in his intercourse with the latter, with whose manners and customs he was intimately acquainted. He made a treaty with the Senecas, which was concluded at his house at Johnson's-hall, where he appeared April 3, 1764, as English agent and superintendent of Indian affairs for the northern parts of America, and colonel of the six united nations. He died at the same place in 1774, much regretted for his private worth as well as for his abilities, which had been so usefully exerted in the cause of his country. He was the author of a paper on the Customs, Manners and Languages of the Northern Indians of America, published in the 63d volume of the Philosophical Transactions. JOHNSON, Samuel, first president of King's college, New York, was born at Guilford, Connecticut. He entered the college at Saybrook at about 14 years of age, and was graduated in 1714. In 1716, a college was established, by the general court of the colony, at New Haven, and Mr. Johnson was appointed tutor, though not more than 20 years old. In 1720, he became a preacher at West Haven. A short time afterwards, he became an Episcopalian, and, in 1722, went to England to obtain ordination. Here he received the degree of master of arts at Oxford and Cambridge. In 1723, be returned, and settled at Stratford, where he preached to about 30 Episcopal families in the place, and about 40 in the neighboring towns. He was treated, by the people at large, as a schismatic and apostate, and continually thwarted, the object being to drive him from the country. This treatment he endured with patience and firmness. In 1743, the university of Oxford made him a doctor of divinity. In 1754, he was chosen president of the college just established at New York, and filled the office, with much credit, until 21

VOL. VII.

1763, when he resigned, and returned to Stratford, where he resumed his pastoral functions, and continued them till his death, January, 1772, in the 76th year of his age. He was a man of great learning, quickness of perception, soundness of judgment, and benevolence. While bishop Berkeley was residing in Rhode Island, which he did two years and a half from the time of his arrival, in 1729, doctor Johnson became acquainted with him, and embraced his theory of idealism. Doctor Johnson's publications were chiefly controversial. He also published a Hebrew and an English Grammar.

JOHNSTONE, or JOHNSON, Charles, an ingenious writer, was a native of Ireland. He was born in the early part of the last century, was called to the bar, and went over to England to practise, but, being afflicted with deafness, confined himself to the employment of a chamber counsel. His success not being great in this way, he turned his attention to literature, and his first literary attempt was the celebrated Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea (two volumes, 12mo.), a work which attracted much attention. The secret springs of some political intrigues on the continent were unfolded in this production, which, together with smart and piquant sketches of many distinguished characters of the day, including statesmen, noblemen, women of quality, citizens, and persons of every description, who had claimed any share of public notice, rendered it exceedingly popular. As usual, in such works, however, some truth is blended with much fiction, and, although, in regard to known personages, little is absolutely without foundation, much exaggeration prevails. His exposure of the orgies of a club of fashionable profligates, held at the seat of a dissipated nobleman in Buckinghamshire, produced no small sensation at the time. He wrote other works of a similar class, in which much knowledge of life and manners is united to a considerable talent for spirited caricature. In 1782, he went to India, and became concerned in editing a Bengal newspaper. He died in Calcutta, about 1800.

JOINT, in general, denotes the juncture of two or more things. The joints of the human body are called, by anatomists, articulations. The suppleness to which the joints may be brought, by long practice, from the time of infancy, is very surprising. Every common posture-master shows us a great deal of this; but one of the most wonderful instances of it was

in a person of the name of Clark, and famous for it in London, where he was commonly known by the name of Clark the posture-master. This man had found the way, by long practice, to distort many of the bones, of which nobody before had ever thought it possible to alter the position. He had such an absolute command of his muscles and joints, that he could almost disjoint his whole body; so that he once imposed on the famous Mullens, by his distortions, in such a manner, that he refused to undertake his cure; but, to the amazement of the physician, no sooner had he given over his patient, than he saw him restore himself to the figure and condition of a proper man, with no distortion about him.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES. Where any branch of business requires a greater capital to prosecute it with advantage than can ordinarily be furnished by an individual, or by a number of individuals actually engaged in conducting it, or where the business is attended with great risks, and may, as events turn out, be very profitable, or result in great losses, as in the case of insurance, it is desirable that the laws should give facility to the combination of the contributions of numerous persons, in great or small amounts, to make up the requisite capital. The first and most obvious combination for purposes of business, is that of copartnerships, whereby each of the members renders himself answerable, in solido, or absolutely, and to the full extent, on all contracts made by the company. This is a sort of association, existing in all places; but if the business to be conducted be of the descriptions above mentioned, the copartnership is not a convenient mode of association, since the capital contributed by many must necessarily be managed by a few; and therefore, if each member is liable, in solido, on the contracts of the company, the fortune of each is put in jeopardy, by ever so small a contribution to the joint-stock. This must operate, of course, to discourage useful undertakings on a large scale, and even if it did not, it might still be very important to provide for associations, with a limited liability of the individual members, since the ruin of any individual will necessarily affect others to a greater or less extent. The shocks, and individual derangements and reverses, which are necessarily incident to enterprises of industry and trade, make it very desirable to secure, by some modes of association, an apportionment of risks, losses and gains

among a great number. This is done by means of private corporations, joint-stock companies, and limited copartnerships. In regard to the two first descriptions of association, it is not always the purpose of their institution to limit the responsibility of the members. In the case of towns, for instance, and so in regard to some other local corporations, an execution, issuing on a judgment recovered against the corporation, may be levied upon the property of any member. So, in some of the U. States, the individual members of banking or manufacturing corporations are liable absolutely, and without limit, for the debts of the company; but, in general, in both corporations and joint-stock companies, only the capital stock is liable for the contracts of the company. Each member pays in his amount of this stock, which he knows to be subject to the risks of the business to be pursued. He can esti mate precisely, therefore, the extent, the utmost limit, of his hazard in the most unfavorable event. With this limitation, many will be ready to embark their capital in enterprises attended with the chances of great gain, or losses, according to the event, who would be quite unwilling to take the hazard of being individually liable for the whole amount of the losses of the whole concern, or of guarantying the responsibility of the other members of the company as copartners. In this way, enterprises conducive to the general prosperity are promoted, which individuals would not otherwise engage in. Formerly, when the pursuits of commerce were less systematically conducted, and its risks and its profits more uncertain, commercial joint-stock companies were much more frequent than at present. These companies were favored by governments, in the first place, as promoting trade; in the second, as the means of raising a revenue. The government granted to a certain company, or to certain persons, the exclusive right to carry on a certain branch of trade or production, for a certain time, or within certain limits. The company paid the government for this privilege, intending, of course, to indemnify themselves by their profits. They paid a tax with the intention of reimbursing themselves, just as an importer pays duties on his goods, intending to charge the amount, with a profit, in the price to the consumer. It was in opposition to these monopolies that the doctrines of free trade, as they are called, originated; and, considered in reference to such monop

olies, those doctrines are undoubtedly just, and so universally held to be; but they are extended by many much beyond these limits. Where only the fund is liable, and not the individuals who contribute it, no injustice is done to the creditors of the company, provided the law secures the actual payment of the fund; for if a person gives credit to a certain fund, knowing the risks to which it is exposed by the kind of business in which it is embarked, he has no ground of dissatisfaction with the members of the company, or the laws, though this fund should prove to be insolvent. This is the most limited responsibility of the contributors to a joint-stock. In other associations of this kind, the contributors are liable to a certain amount for the debts of the concern; as, for instance, to an additional amount equal to that of their respective shares of stock; or each is liable for his proportion of the debts, according to that of his stock. There are also, in the different associations of this description, under the laws of different countries, various conditions on which the liability depends; and also various conditions, which must be complied with, in managing the concerns of the company, in order to keep within the limit of the modified responsibility. Still another description of joint-stock companies is that of limited copartnerships, or companies in which one or more of the members are liable in solido, and the others no otherwise liable than for the loss of the proportion of capital which they have put into the concern. This is uniting in the same company the characteristics of a corporation with the most limited responsibility of individual members, and those of a copartnership with an unlimited individual liability. The evident advantages of limited copartnerships, by giving encouragement to persons depending on income, and not devoting themselves personally to the prosecution of active business, to devote their capital to production and trade, without subjecting them to unlimited responsibility, recommend them to adoption in every code of laws. The French code contains such a provision, but none such has heretofore been adopted in the English laws, nor are such associations provided for generally in the U. States, at the time of writing this article [1831], though a law to this effect has been passed in New York, and the interest and discussion excited on the subject will probably lead to similar enactments in the other states. Joint-stock companies, whatever may be

their form, and however extensive or limited may be the liability of the members, are subject to one abuse, which grows out of their very nature and constitution, and cannot, therefore, be wholly prevented. They are liable to be used, by fraudulent or over sanguine people, as bubbles. The fact of their being subject to such perversion, produces a strong and unjust prejudice against them, in the minds of many persons. There is no institution or form of association that is free from abuses and perversions. The engines of greatest power act the most destructively when their powers are wrongly directed, or when they are deranged in their action; but this is no ground of argument against making use of them. It is only a reason for precautions and regulations.

JOINT TENANTS are those that hold lands or tenements by one title, without partition. The creation of an estate in joint tenancy depends on the wording of the deed or devise by which the tenant claims title, and cannot arise by act of law. If any estate be given to a plurality of persons, without adding any restrictive, exclusive, or explanatory words, this makes them immediately joint tenants in fee of the lands. If there be two joint tenants, and one release the other, this passes a fee without the word heirs. Joint tenants may make partition. The one party may compel the other to make partition, which must be by deed; that is to say, all the parties must, by deed, actually convey and assure to each other the several estates which they are to take and enjoy severally and separately. Joint tenants must jointly implead and be jointly impleaded with others. If one joint tenant refuse to join in an action, he may be summoned and severed; but if the person severed die, the writ abates in real actions, but not in personal and mixed actions.

JOLIBA, or DJOLIBA. (See Niger.)
JOLLY BOAT. (See Boat.)

JOMELLI, Niccolò; a musical composer, born 1714, at Aversa, in the kingdom of Naples. He first studied at Naples, under Feo, and afterwards under Martini at Bologna. At first, he composed ballets-a sort of music then so little esteemed in Italy, that he did not own himself the author of his first comic opera (L'Errore Amoroso), but gave it to the world under the name of Valentino, a master of not much reputation. This opera, which he composed at the age of 23, probably for the new theatre at Naples, was crowned with great applause, by which he was encouraged to continue his compositions.

In 1738, he wrote his Odoardo, for the theatre of Florence, with still greater success, which induced him, in 1740, to go to Rome. He now wrote, from 1740 to 1748, 14 operas for Rome, of which the Astianatte, Ifigenia, and Caio Mario, are particularly worthy of mention, in the latter of which, the beautiful air Sposo, io vado a morir, was received with the highest admiration. Besides these, he composed several operas for Venice and other cities. He now received the place of chapel-master in St. Peter's, and composed, besides several motettes, the psalm Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel (Blessed Lord God of Israel), the music of which is a masterpiece. The duke of Würtemberg then engaged him in his service, and Jomelli went to Stuttgart, where he remained from 1748 to 1765, enjoying the highest distinction, and exercising great influence on German music. When he returned to Italy, John V, king of Portugal, invited him to his court. Although he declined this invitation, he composed a considerable number of operas for the king, and sent him copies of all his subsequent works. He afterwards composed two operas in Rome, both of which were unsuccessful. He then removed to Naples, where he met with no better success; and, August 28, 1774, he died of apoplexy, produced, as is supposed, by chagrin at the success of the German Schuster, and the ill reception of his own opeHis Requiem and Miserere are par

ras.

ticularly celebrated.

JOMINI, Henry, baron; lieutenant-general and aid-de-camp of the late emperor Alexander; a distinguished military writer, born at Payerne (Peterlingen), in the Pays de Vaud, about 1775. He served at first in a French regiment of Swiss, and when it was broken up, August 10, 1792, engaged in mercantile pursuits. On the revolution in Switzerland, he became chief of battalion and secretary-general of the department of war before his 20th year. In these offices, he greatly distinguished himself. In 1803, Jomini connected himself with a mercantile house in Paris; but he devoted all his leisure to his favorite pursuit, the study of tactics. In 1804 was published his Traité des grandes Opérations militaires, when Ney appointed him chef de bataillon in his own staff. In 1805, he was sent on public business to Napoleon, at Vienna, to whom he presented the two first volumes of his work, which Napoleon received with approbation, and raised the author to the rank of a colonel. Afterwards, as chief of the

staff of marshal Ney, Jomini performed the campaigns of 1806 and 1807, in Prussia and Poland, was made brigadier-goneral and baron, and followed the marshal to Spain in 1808 and 1809. A misunderstanding with his commander induced him to request permission to resign. It was not granted him; but he retired to Switzerland, was afterwards made majorgeneral, and followed Napoleon as his historiographer, in the grand army which marched against Russia (1812). He continued here, as governor of Smolensk, till Napoleon's defeat. He was present in the campaign of 1813, in Saxony, as chief of the staff of marshal Ney. But, after the declaration of the armistice of Plasswitz, he left the army privately, in Silesia, and, on the 14th August, went over to the allies. Napoleon had refused him the rank of general of a division. Alexander appointed him lieutenant-general and aid. He now bore arms against France. On this account, general Sarrazin reproached him with such bitterness in his history of the war, that Jomini demanded satisfaction. As this was not to be obtained, he printed their correspondence (Correspondance entre le Général Jomini et le Général Sarrazin, sur la Campagne de 1813). Iu 1815, Jomini was in the suite of Alexander at Paris, where he received the cross of St. Louis. His Traité de grande Tactique (Paris, 1805, 2 vols., with an atlas), appeared in a 2d edition, under the title Traité des grandes Opérations militaires, or Relation critique et comparative des Campagnes de Frédéric et de Napoléon (the 3d edition, 1817,8 vols., with two atlases). The 7-15 parts contain the Hist. critique et militaire des Campagnes de la Révolut. (new edition, Paris, 1824), and extend to 1803. His work is valuable as a history of the war, since it was drawn from the archives of the war department, and other official sources. His account of Frederic's campaigns is borrowed from Lloyd and Tempelhof. The Tableau de la Campagne d'Automne en Allemagne (Paris, 1817), is also his work, as is likewise the Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon (1827).

JONAH (Hebreo, signifying dove, and also the powerful), one of the minor prophets, son of Amithai, and, according to 2 Kings, xiv, 25, a contemporary of Jeroboam II, was born at Gath-Hepher, in Galilee. In the book which bears his name, it is related that he received a coinmand from God, to go and prophesy against Nineveh; but he fled to Joppa, and embarked for Tarshish. The ves sel being tossed by a storm, it was

concluded to draw lots, in order to determine who was the cause of the tempest. The lot fell upon Jonah, who was thrown overboard by his own request, because he had been disobedient to God, but was swallowed by a large fish (according to the ancient commentators, a whale; according to moderns, a shark). After he had remained three days and nights in the belly of the fish, the Lord spake unto the fish, and it vomited out Jonah on dry land. He now went to Nineveh, and prophesied its destruction; but, the king and people having repented, Nineveh was spared. Jonah, angry at this, went out of the city, and God made a gourd grow up over him, which was a shade to him. He then sent a worm, which smote the gourd so that it died in one night. Jonah was angry at this also; but God showed him the foolishness of being angry at the destruction of a gourd, and yet demanding the destruction of a city in which were 120,000 innocent children. Jonah's grave is shown at Mosul, the ancient Nineveh, and also at Gath. Some critics maintain that the book was not written by Jonah himself, but is a collection of traditions, made after the destruction of Nineveh. Some writers consider it merely as an allegorical poem. The story of Jonah is also known to the Mohammedans, according to whom, he embarked after his prophecy at Nineveh, and remained 40 days in the belly of the fish. The prayer of the prophet in this situation, is considered one of the most efficacious in the Koran. JONATHAN, or BROTHER JONATHAN; the nickname given to the Americans of the U. States collectively, by the English, probably on account of the frequency of this name among the early Americans. (See John Bull, and Yankee.) JONES, Inigo; the reviver of classical architecture in England, in the beginning of the 17th century. He was a native of London, where his father was a clothworker, and was born about 1572. Destined for a mechanical employment, his talents attracted the notice of the earl of Arundel, and of William, earl of Pembroke, the latter of whom supplied him with the means of visiting Italy, for the purpose of studying landscape painting. He went to Venice, where the works of Palladio inspired him with a taste for the art of architecture, in which he rose to great eminence. His reputation procured him the post of first architect to Christiern IV, king of Denmark, who, visiting his brother-in-law, James I, in 1606, brought Jones with him to England. He was in

duced to remain, and was appointed architect to the queen, and subsequently to Henry, prince of Wales. After the death of the prince, he again visited Italy, and remained there some years. During this interval, he extended his knowledge, and improved his taste, from the examination of the models of ancient and modern art. The banqueting house at Whitehall (intended as an adjunct to a magnificent palace) is a monument of his skill and science. At Winchester cathedral, a Gothic building, he erected a screen in the style of classic antiquity. Like his successor, Wren, he seems not to have duly appreciated the peculiar character and distinctive beauties of the pointed style of building, of which so many fine specimens remain in the ecclesiastical structures of the middle ages, in England, France and Germany. He built the front of Wilton-house, in Wiltshire, for Philip, earl of Pembroke, and was much employed by the court and by many of the nobility and gentry, so that he realized a handsome fortune. His talents were often put in requisition for the purpose of designing the scenery and decorations for masques-a species of dramatic entertainment, fashionable in the early part of the 17th century. In these pieces, the dialogues and songs were composed by Ben Jonson, who quarrelled with Jones, and abused him in epigrams and satires. The enmity of the poet was not the only misfortune to which the architect was exposed. Being a Roman Catholic, and a partisan of royalty, he suffered in the civil war, and, in 1646, was forced to pay a fine of £545, as a malignant or cavalier. The ruin of the royal cause, and the death of the king, distressed him greatly; and at length, worn down by sorrow and suffering, he died, July 21, 1652. As an author, he is known by a work relative to that curious monument of former ages, Stonehenge, on Salisbury plain, published after his death, by his sonin-law, Mr. Webb. The object of this treatise, composed by the command of king James I, is to prove that Stonehenge was erected by the Romans, and was a hypethral temple, dedicated to the god Coelus. A collection of the architectural designs of Inigo Jones was published by Kent, in 1727 and 1744, and others more recently, by Ware and by Leoni.

JONES, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and accomplished scholar, was born in London, September 20, 1746. He lost his father when only three years of age, and the care of his education fell on his mother, a lady of uncommon endowments.