dence. The jealousy of the suspicious emperor could not fail to be excited by the brilliant career of his young kinsman in Gaul. He was even base enough to stir up, secretly, the Gauls against him, and to recall his best troops, under pretence that he wanted to employ them against the Persians. This order caused a rebellion among the soldiers, who were unwilling to go to Persia. They proclaimed their leader Julian emperor, in March, 360, in spite of his own resistance. Julian gave information of the state of things to Constans, who ordered him to renounce his title of emperor. Much as he was inclined to do this, the Gallic legions equally opposed his inclination. The emperor now sent an army against Julian, who made preparations in his defence. He left Gaul, where he had passed five years, took Sirmium, the capital of Illyria, and besieged Aquileia. Here he heard of the death of the emperor Constans. He now passed rapidly through Thrace, and reached Constantinople, December 11, 361, where he was immediately proclaimed emperor. He began by putting a stop to many abuses, and limiting the splendor of his court. Of the thousand barbers, and attendants at the baths, employed by his predecessors, he retained but a single one. The number of cooks, too, which was likewise very great, he reduced to one. The eunuchs were dismissed, as well as those called curiosi, who, under pretence of informing the emperor of useful things, were dangerous spies, and the bane of all social intercourse. After these retrenchments, he was able to remit to the people the fifth part of all their taxes. Julian sought to restore the heathen worship in all its splendor, and, on that account, opposed Christianity as much as was in his power, without, however, like many of his predecessors, cruelly persecuting the Christians themselves. He took from the Christian churches their riches, which were often very great, and divided them among his soldiers. He sought likewise to induce the Christians, by flattery or by favor, to embrace paganism, and, failing in the attempt, he labored to make their condition disagreeable. Thus, for example, he forbade them to plead before a court of justice, or to receive offices in the state. Indeed, the Christians were no longer allowed to profess their faith openly; for he well knew what powerful arms the Scriptures afforded for combating paganism. To render false the prophecy of Jesus, with regard to the temple at

Jerusalem, he permitted the Jews to rebuild it, about 300 years after its destruction; but it is said that flames of fire arose from beneath, and consumed some of the workmen. In the meanwhile, he wished to end the war with the Persians. His first campaign against them was successful. He took several cities, and advanced as far as Ctesiphon. Want of means of subsistence obliged him to retreat. June 26, 365, he was mortally wounded, and died the following night, in the 34th year of his age.-There is hardly, either in ancient or in modern history, a prince whom historians have judged so differently. Perhaps it is because his character was full of contradictions; and some believe that he had so many good and so many bad qualities, that it is easy to blame or to praise him without violating the truth. On the one side, learned, magnanimous, moderate, temperate, circumspect, just, merciful, humane; on the other, inconsistent, fickle, eccentric, fanatical and superstitious in the highest degree, ambitious, and full of eagerness to be at once a Plato, a Marcus Aurelius and an Alexander, he sought chiefly for the means of distinguishing himself from all others. At the bottom of all these features in his character, there appears to lie à sarcastic, sophistic coldness and dissimulation. Some of his works have come down to us. Several speeches, letters and satires, among which the satire on the Cæsars, and that on the people of Antioch, called Misopogon, are distinguished for wit and humor. The first is particularly esteemed. A critical judg ment passed upon those who had sat upon the first of the thrones of earth, by a philosopher who had himself occupied the same seat, must indeed possess a peculiar charm. In his Misopogon, Julian severely lashes the Antiochians, but spares no praise when he speaks of himself. The best and most complete edition of his remaining works is that of Ezekiel Spanheim (Leipsic, 1696, folio). They prove that this emperor possessed talent, wit, vivacity, ease in writing, and some fertility; but he appears to have conformed too much to the taste of his age, in which a mere rhetorical style of declamation took the place of eloquence, antithesis the place of thought, and play on words the place of wit. He wrote also a work against the Christian religion, of which we have yet some extracts that have been translated into French by the marquis D'Argens.

JULIAN CALENDAR. (See Calendar, and Epoch.)

JULIANA; a female who possessed great influence at the court of the Mogul emperors of Hindoostan in the earlier part of the last century. She was born in Bengal, in 1658, and was the daughter of a Portuguese named Augustin Dias D'Acosta. After having suffered shipwreck, she went to the court of the great Mogul Aurengzebe, whose favor she conciliated by presenting him with some curiosities which she had preserved. Being appointed superintendent of the harem of that prince, and governess of his son Behadur Shah, she had an opportunity of rendering some important services to the latter, who succeeded to the crown in 1707, under the title of Shah Aulum. He was under the necessity of defending his newly-acquired authority against his brothers by force of arms; and, in a battle which took place, Juliana, mounted on an elephant by the side of the emperor, animated him by her advice when his troops began to give way; and to her exhortations he was indebted for the complete victory which he obtained. Her services were rewarded with the title of princess, the rank of the wife of an omrah, and a profusion of riches and honors. Shah Aulum had such an opinion of her talents, that he was accustomed to say, "If Juliana were a man, I would make him my vizier." Jehander Shah, who became emperor of Hindoostan in 1712, was equally sensible of her merit; and, though she experienced some persecution when that prince was deposed by his nephew, in 1713, she speedily recovered her influence, and retained it till her death, in 1733.

JULIERS; formerly a duchy in Westphalia, bounded north by Guelders, east by Cologne and the Rhine, south by Blankenheim and Schleiden, and west by Liege, Guelders and the Meuse. It now forms a part of the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine, and government of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has a fruitful soil, which produces all sorts of corn in abundance, together with good meadow and pasture land. Much woad also is cultivated here, and linen manufactured.

JULIERS-CLEVES-BERG; a province in Prussia, in the German circles of Lower Rhine and Westphalia, comprehending the late archbishopric of Cologne, the duchies of Cleves and Berg, &c. Population, 908,185; square miles, 3636. It is divided into three governments-Cologne, Düsseldorf and Cleves. It is one of the most populous territories belonging to Prussia. The Rhine passes through the

whole length of it. The inhabitants are Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists. JULIUS; the name of three popes, of whom we shall only mention the two last.

Julius II (Giuliano della Rovera), a native of Albizola, originally a fisherman, was elevated, by his uncle Sixtus IV, to the rank of a bishop and cardinal, was appointed papal legate to France, and, in 1503, was elected pope; and although, while cardinal, the friend of the French, he now became their enemy. He excommunicated the duke of Ferrara, gave Navarre to Spain, besieged Mirandola, commanded his army in person, formed the league of Cambray against Venice, and was altogether warlike in his measures. The king of France and the emperor convened a council at Pisa, before whom he was summoned to appear and explain his conduct; but he did not obey the summons, and called another council in the Lateran. In 1512, he made open war against Louis XII. The French defeated the papal army near Ravenna, but were soon after driven out of Italy. Julius died in 1514. He is considered one of the most immoral of the popes. His conduct certainly was little befitting the head of the Christian church. To procure means for building St. Peter's, he ordered the sale of indulgences, which was one of the immediate causes of the reformation, so that the Protestants may say, without paradox, that St. Peter's is the great monument of Protestantism. Connected with the plan of rebuilding St. Peter's by Bramante was that of embellishing the Vatican; and, on Bramante's recommendation, Julius II invited Raphael to Rome, in 1508, where he painted a superb suite of apartments, called La Segnatura. In the ducal gallery, at Florence, there is a fine portrait of Julius II by Raphael. (See Bramante, and Raphael.)

Julius III (Giovanni Maria Giocchi), a Roman of low birth, called himself Del Monte, because his family originated from Monte Sabino, in the Florentine territory. He was made cardinal by Paul III, in 1536, took an active part in the council of Trent, as papal legate, and was the chief cause that it was transferred to Bologna, against the will of Charles V. Julius was elected pope in 1550. He received the fugitive Nestorian patriarch Suluca, and endeavored to effect a union with the Nestorians. He died 1555, and is accused of the greatest licentiousness, even of unnatural intercourse with a

nal.

JULIUS CESAR. (See Cæsar.) JULIUS OF MEDICI. (See Clement.) JULIUS ROMANUS. (See Giulio Romano.) JULLIEN, Marc Antoine, a contemporary French writer, born in Paris, in 1775, was for some time imprisoned during the revolution, on account of his invectives against terrorism, afterwards entered the army, and served under Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt. On the return of that general from Egypt, Jullien opposed his ambitious designs, but was employed as a diplomatic agent, and, from 1806 to 1810, held an office in the department of war. In 1813, he was arrested on suspicion of conspiring against the emperor, and, after the restoration, was concerned in establishing a journal, called at first the Indépendant, since the Constitutionnel. On account of the boldness of his opinions, he was obliged to retire to Switzerland; and, on his return to Paris, in 1817, published his Manuel Electoral. In 1819, he projected the Revue Encyclopédique, one of the most valuable of the French journals, which appears monthly, and contains reviews, essays and analyses of books in all departments of literature and science. M. Jullien visited Great Britain in 1822, for the purpose of extending his literary connexJons. Among his contributors are Sismondi, Salverte, &c.

JULY; the seventh month in our calendar, which, in the Roman year, bore the name of Quintilis, as the fifth in the computation of Romulus, even after Numa had prefixed January and February. Marc Antony effected a change in its name, in honor of Julius Cæsar, who was born Iv Idus Quintilis, and, thenceforward, by a decree of the senate, it was called Julius.

JUMNA, OF YUMNA; a celebrated river of Hindoostan, which has its source in the Himalaya mountains. It enters the province of Delhi, and, passing the cities of Delhi and Agra, falls into the Ganges at Allahabad. Its length is estimated at 780 miles.

JUMPING MOUSE (meriones, F. Cuv.). This little animal bears a great resemblance, in the length of its hind legs, and mode of leaping, to the jerboa. It is found from Canada to Maryland, and perhaps still farther south. It is about the size of the common mouse. The head, back, and upper parts of the body, are reddishbrown, darkest on the back. The under parts are cream color, with a yellow streak passing along the body. The tail is longer

grain and grass fields: it breeds very fast, and occasionally commits considerable havoc. When the cold weather commences, it goes into winter quarters, and remains torpid till the warm season returns. The jumping mouse does not exclusively move on its hind feet, but is capable of running on all-fours with great speed. The leaps taken by this diminutive creature, when pursued, are astonishing. It sometimes clears five or six feet at a single bound. There is another species also found in this country, in the vicinity of Hudson's bay, which closely resembles the above, in its habits and mode of progression.

JUNE; the sixth month in our calendar. Vossius gives three etymologies of the name-one from Juno; another from jungo (to join), referring to the union between the Romans and Sabines, under Romulus and Titus Tatius; a third from juniores (the young men), Romulus having been said to have assigned the month of May to the elders, and that of June to the young men, when he divided the people into these two great classes, the former to serve in counsel, the latter in war. These origins are more fully explained by Ovid. The name has also been traced to Junius Brutus, the first consul.

JUNG, John Henry, called Stilling, was born 1740, in Nassau, and died in 1817, at Carlsruhe.. In his youth, he was apprentice to a tailor. The desire of knowledge which always occupied him, made him afterwards attempt to become a schoolmaster. He was unsuccessful, and returned to the tailors' business, from which, however, he was called several times to become a tutor. At last he succeeded in procuring the means of studying medicine in Strasburg, and was afterwards a physician in Elberfeld. He has described, himself, the greater part of his life; and the celebrated work Heinrich Stilling's Jugend, Jünglingsjahre und Wanderschaft (Berlin, 1777, 3 volumes), in a new form, under the title Lebensbeschreibung (Berlin, 1806, 5 volumes), is incomparable. He relates, with modesty and simplicity, the way in which his life was passed among the classes of people less favored by exterior gifts of fortune; and his pious and pure heart discloses itself so unaffectedly and involuntarily, and the style is at the same time so excellent, that the work is one of the most popular among the German classics. It has a charm of a very peculiar kind, and many readers will sympathize with the author, even in those pcs

sages of mystical devotion, which do not accord with the tone of their own minds. His works of devout mysticism are very numerous. Those best known are his Theobald der Schwärmer, Das Heimweh, Der Volkslehrer, &c. Much opposition was excited by his strange work Theorie der Geisterkunde (Nuremberg, 1808), and the Apology for the same (1809), which is connected with his Scenen aus dem Geisterreiche (Frankfort, 1803). In these works, he not only shows his full belief in apparitions, and adduces numerous cases, which he considers undeniable, but also tries, in the first, to establish a theory of the nature of spirits, and the mode in which they appear. Even those who disbelieve entirely in apparitions, will find these works of great interest, because they will show him with how much appearance of truth many of the most remarkable cases are related by several witnesses of respectable character, who had not previously believed in the reality of such appearances, and under circumstances which, in ordinary cases, would be considered conclusive. Jung made himself known, also, by his numerous works on medical subjects, the veterinary art, political economy, &c. He was, moreover, one of the most successful operators for the cure of the cataract. 66 Already has he," says Matthisson, in his Letters (Zurich, 1795), "restored sight to more than 2000 poor blind people, not only gratis, but, in many cases, with the addition of pecuniary assistance." Göthe, in his Aus Meinem Leben, second volume, pages 378 and 489, gives a fine character of Jung.

JUNGER, John Frederic, born 1759, at Leipsic, was first apprentice to a merchant, afterwards studied law, and, at a later period, devoted himself entirely to belleslettres. He became tutor to two princes, and, in 1789, was appointed poet of the court theatre at Vienna; but, in 1794, was obliged to maintain himself solely by his writings. He was extremely diligent, yet his gains were very little this and his lonely life rendered him subject to fits of deep melancholy, in which, as has been the case with other writers, he produced his gayest works. These were comedies. He wrote a great deal, and died 1797. His comedies have been published in three collections-Lustspiele (in five volumes, Leipsic, 1785-1790), Komisches Theater (Leipsic, 1792-1795, three volumes), and Theatralischer Nachlass (Ratisbon, 1803-1804).

JUNGFRAU (German, meaning virgin); a high mountain, in the canton of Berne,

Switzerland, the highest peak of whichthe Jungfrauhorn-is 13,720 feet high, and was first ascended in 1811. The Jungfrau is one of the most magnificent mountains of Switzerland, and is covered with enormous masses of snow and glaciers. (See Alps.)

The

JUNIN, BATTLE of. This engagement took place, Aug. 6, 1824, on the elevated plains of Junin, near the lake of Reyes in Peru, when the royalists, under Canterac, were beaten by Bolivar and the united Peruvian and Colombian forces. combatants fought hand to hand, with lance and sabre, those engaged being cavalry only. This affair was but a prelude to the decisive battle of Ayacucho, which soon followed, and accomplished the final overthrow of the royalist party.

JUNIPER; a genus of plants having imbricated, scale-like leaves, closely allied to the cedar and pine, but differing in having the scales of the cone united, and forming a little berry. The juniperus Virginiana, commonly called red cedar, is frequent throughout the U. States, from near lat. 45° to the point of Florida, and westward as far as the Rocky mountains. It does not attain large dimensions, ordinarily not exceeding 30 feet in height, but is highly esteemed for the durability and lightness of the wood, which is employed in the upper part of the frames of vessels, for posts, &c., and is also an article of export to England. So little regard has been paid to the preservation of this tree, and such has been the demand for the timber, that it is now not easily obtained, and is becoming scarcer every day. As is the case with others of our forest-trees, the farther south and the more barren the soil in which it grows, the better is the quality of the wood. The cedar apples, frequently used in the U. States as a vermifuge, are excrescences formed by insects on the branches of this tree. The red cedar, in many places, appears as the pioneer of the American forest, fixing upon dry and exposed situations, and fostering beneath its shade young trees of various species, till it is finally overtopped by them, and in its turn disappears. The common European juniper (J. communis) is naturalized in some parts of the U. States, and is said to be really native in Canada. The J. prostrata, distinguished from the preceding by its larger and oblong berries, it a trailing shrub, covering often a considerable extent of ground, and inhabiting Canada, and those parts of the U. States north of lat. 42°. The J. barbadensis inhabits Florida, and other species are found on

the Rocky mountains. The wood of the J. Bermudiana is exported from the Bermudas, and, among other uses, is employed in the manufacture of black lead pencils. The berries of the juniperus communis are made use of to impart their peculiar flavor to spirit, constituting gin. They are also used by brewers, to give pungency to the lighter kinds of beer. In some parts of Europe, they are roasted, ground, and used as a substitute for coffee. They are also used in Sweden and in Germany as a conserve, and as a culinary spice, and especially to give flavor to sour-crout. Like all plants of the terebinthinate class, they have a decidedly diuretic property, and they are much used as diuretic medicines. The oil of juniper, if mixed with nut-oil, forms an excellent varnish for pictures, wood-work and iron, which it preserves from rust. From the bark exudes a resinous gum, known by the name of gum sandarach. It is in small, yellow pieces, very brittle and inflammable, and of a pungent, aromatic taste. When finely powdered and sifted, it constitutes the substance so well known under the name of pounce. It is also used by painters in the preparation of varnish, especially of the kind termed vernix.

JUNIUS. The Letters of Junius first appeared in Woodfall's Public Advertiser, from which they were copied into most of the other journals of the time. The earliest under this signature bears date Jan. 21, 1769; the last, Jan. 21, 1772. After they were completed, they were collected (the collection including also those signed Philo Junius, with the letters of sir William Draper, and those of Horne to Junius), and published by Woodfall, with a dedication to the English nation, and a preface by the author. Besides the letters signed Junius, others by the same author were published in the same paper, under the signatures of Poplicola, Atticus, Lucius, Brutus, Nemesis, Veteran, &c., relating to different subjects, but all marked with the same boldness, severity and passion which characterize the former. These appeared between April 28, 1767, and May 12, 1772, and are given in the younger Woodfall's edition as the Miscellaneous Letters. Although 60 years have elapsed since the publication of these extraordinary papers, we have as yet no positive proofs to decide the question who was the author. The most prying curiosity, and the most industrious ingenuity, have been at work to collect circumstantial evidence on this point, and volumes have been written about it; but, if we may believe a state

ment which appeared in the London Globe a few years ago, the author is a person who had not then been named in all the controversies respecting these letters. "Five letters, deposited in the archives of the Grenville family, at Stowe, establish beyond a doubt," says the Globe, "the real author of Junius. That individual was politically connected with Geo. Grenville, from whom these autograph proofs have descended to their present possessor. The venerable statesman (lord Grenville, son of G. Grenville), nearly allied to the duke of Buckingham (grandson of G. Grenville), has requested the discovery should not be published during his life." It will be seen that one of the recent writers on this disputed subject has suspected the author to have been lord Temple, the brother and political friend of Geo. Grenville. Butler (Reminiscenses, first series, letter on Junius), speaking of the copy which the author ordered of his publisher "bound in vellum," also says, "Who is the possessor of this copy? The reminiscent thinks it was not unknown to the founder of a noble house, to which the public owes an edition of Homer which does the nation honor" (referring, doubtless, to the edition of Oxford, 1800, impensis DD. Buckingham et Grenville). A writer in the Edinburgh Review (vol. 43, article On the Author of Eikon Basilike) says, "A simple test ascertains the political connexions of Junius: he supported the cause of authority against America with Mr. Grenville, and maintained the highest popular principles on the Middlesex election with the same statesman: no other party but the Grenvilles combined these two opinions.” Junius, we may add, was also in favor of triennial parliaments, and opposed to abolition of the rotten boroughs. It is likewise evident, from his language, that he was a man of rank and fortune: this appears not only from his tone and manner, but from his express assertions: "My rank and fortune place me above a common bribe:" and to one of Woodfall's letters concerning the profits arising from the sale of the letters, he replies, "I am far above all pecuniary views." Lord Eldon declared in parliament that, if not a lawyer, he must have written in concer with the ablest lawyers; but, independently of his own declaration to Woodfall, "Do not injure me so much as to suspect I am a lawyer; I had as lief be a Scotchman," the great English lawyer Butler asserts that Junius commits gross inaccuracies in his legal phrases. Several inci