of quantity, quality, relation and modality. The categories themselves are 12 in number. Under the first head are comprised unity, multitude, totality; under the second, reality, negation, limitation; under the third, substance and accident, cause and effect, action and reaction; under the fourth, possibility, existence, necessity. These categories are necessary and indispensable for our understanding, as the forms of space and time were for our perceptions; we cannot figure to ourselves any thing without the relations of cause and effect, of possibility, quantity, &c., which, with other words, is, we cannot perceive any thing except by these original, necessary, unchangeable forms of thought. Hence the demonstrative certainty of mathematics, the objects of which--space, time, quantity, &c.--lie in the necessity of the forms of thought, and not in the range of error to which experience is subject. To produce results, the categories are applied to exterior objects, objects of experience, in which application they are subject to error. The three original faculties, through the medium of which we acquire knowledge, are sense, understanding, reason. Sense, a passive and receptive faculty, has, as has been already stated, for its forms or conditions, space and time. Understanding is an active or spontaneous faculty, and consists in the power of forming conceptions, according to the categories already given, which categories are applied to objects of experience through the medium of the two forms of perception, space and time. Reason is the third or highest degree of mental spontaneity, and consists in the power of forming ideas. As it is the province of the understanding to form the intuitions of sense into conceptions, so it is the business of reason to form conceptions into ideas. The work in which Kant endeavored to ascertain these categories and the province of certain human knowledge, is his Kritik der reinen Vernunft--Critical Inquiry into the Nature of Pure Reason (1st edition, Riga, 1781; 6th edition, Leipsic, 1818). Far from rejecting experience, Kant considers the work of all our life but the action of our innate faculties on the conceptions which come to us from without. The philosophy thus started was called critical philosophy-a very poor name, but which has now become settled. Kant proceeds in a similar way with morality; the idea of good and bad is a necessary condition, an original basis of morals, which is supposed in every one of our moral reflections, and not obtained by ex

perience. He treats this part of his phi losophy in his Kritik der praktischen Vernunft-a Critical Inquiry into Practical Reason (1788; 5th edition, Leipsic, 1818), Kant places unreservedly on two parallel lines all the arguments for and against human liberty, the immortality of the soul, the transitory or eternal duration of the world; and resorts to the feelings to make the balance incline, because the metaphysical proofs on the opposite sides are equally great. These opposite arguments on great questions are called, in the works of Kant, antinomies. In æsthetics, also, he pursues a similar course, and treats it in his Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen (Riga, 1771)-Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime. Another important work of his is the Kritik der Urtheilskraft-Critical Inquiry into the Facul ty of Judgment (Berlin, 1790; 3d edition, 1799). We must also mention Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre—Metaphysical Elements of Legal Science (1797; 2d edition, 1803); Metaphysical Elements of Ethics (1797; 2d edition, 1803); Metaphysical Elements of Natural Science (1786; 3d edition, 1800); a Pragmat ical Treatise on Anthropology (1798; 3d edition, 1821); Of Perpetual Peace (1796; Religion considered within the Limits of Reason (1793); the only possible Evidence for demonstrating the Existence of the Deity (1763; last edition, 1794). Most of Kant's smaller treatises, full of acute remarks, are contained in his Kleinere Schriften-Smaller Works (Königsberg and Leipsic, 1797, 3 vols.), and in the collection edited by Tieftrunk (Halle, 1799, 3 vols). Hufeland, the physician, published Kant's work, Of the Power of the Mind, by mere Resolution, to control its morbid Feelings, with notes (2d edition, Leipsic, 1824). Kant, of course, met with many opponents, the most prominent among whom were Mendelssohn, Hamann, Feder, Garve, Platner, Flatt, Jacobi, Herder, and particularly G. C. Shultze, as Enesidemus (1792), and in his Kritik der Theoretischen Philosophie (Hamb., 1801, 2 vols.). But his adherents were the more numerous party, and his philosophy has been taught in all the German universities, excepting some Catholic ones. A very good enumeration of Kant's works, and those of his opponents, as well as of his commentators and followers, is to be found in Tennemann's History of Philosophy, or Cousin's Manuel de l'Histoire de la Philosophie traduit de l'Allemand de Tennemann (Paris, 1829, vol. 2).

KAPNIST. (See Capnist.)

KARA, in the Tartar languages; black, as Karamania (black people, country of the). In opposition to another word of the same idiom which signifies white and free, kara has been used to signify tributary, e. g., kara Kalpacks (tributary Kalpacks).

KARAITES. (See Caraites.)

KARAMSIN, Nicolas, imperial Russian historiographer, born in 1765, educated at Moscow, in the house of professor Schaden, entered the military service, and travelled, from 1789 till 1791, through Middle Europe. He is esteemed by many the first original prose writer of Russia. Of his History of the Russian Empire, 11 volumes had appeared in 1824. It has been translated into French, both at Paris and St. Petersburg. This history extends to 1613, to the house of Romanoff. His other writings are Letters of a Russian Traveller, Aglaia, a collection of tales (Moscow, 1794, 2 vols.), &c. His songs are too sentimental. The emperor Alexander conferred on him the order of St. Anne, and gave him 60,000 rubles for the publication of his great work. A free residence was also allowed him in a pleasure castle of the empress Catharine II, and all the archives opened to him. The third edition of Karamsin's works appeared in 1815, in nine volumes. Of his History of the Russian Empire, in the original, the second edition appeared in 1818. When on the point of making a journey into foreign countries, he died, June 3, 1826. Just before his death, the emperor had granted him a pension of 50,000 rubles, which was continued to his widow and children. Mr. Bowring has translated some of his poems.

KARIKAL; a French city on the coast of Coromandel, surrounded by the English territories, 26 leagues from Pondicherry, under the jurisdiction of which it is. It produces a net revenue of 300,000 francs a year. Population, 15,000; population of the territory, about as many

more.

KARL; the German name for Charles, appearing in many geographical names, as Karlstadt, Karlsruhe, Karlsbad. Karl is of the same origin as kerl, which means, at present, a strong, sturdy fellow, formerly a valiant, powerful man. It is the same with the English ceorl or churl.

KARLSBAD, KARLSRUHE, KARLSTADT, &c. (See Carlsbad, &c.)

KARSCHIN, Anna Louisa (properly Karsch), a German poetess, was born Dec. 1, 1722, near Schwibus, on the frontiers of Silesia. Her father kept an alehouse.

He died while she was young, and her mother, fearing that the eagerness for reading and writing which she displayed would make her neglect domestic occupations, withdrew her from the house of her uncle, who had undertaken the care of her education, and employed her three years in taking care of the cows; but she still contrived to gratify her desire of knowledge; for, having become acquainted with a shepherd boy who brought her books, mostly poor ones, she read them secretly. Her mother married her to a weaver, whom she never had seen. This union was unhappy, and, after eleven years, was terminated by a divorce. She was now utterly destitute; and, a year after, her mother married her to a drunken tailor, Karsch, whom Karschin hated. She now supported herself by selling occasional poems of her own composition, and by exhibiting as an improvvisatrice about the country; but her drunken husband spent all her money. She finally attracted the attention of some influential man, and went to Berlin, where Ramler, Mendelssohn, Gleim, &c., encouraged her. Sulzer, who called her the German Sappho, published some of her poems in 1764, which produced her a considerable sum. She was admitted into the first society, and received several small pensions, but was not able fully to support herself, her two children and her brother. Frederic II took no interest in her, and did not give her the pension he had promised; but his successor, Frederic William II, ordered a convenient house to be built for her, which, however, she did not enjoy long, as her death took place in Oct., 1791. Her daughter published part of her poems, with her life, in 1792; new edition, 1796.

KASAN; an extensive province or government of European Russia, lying between 46° 20′ and 49° 40′ E. longitude, and 54 and 57° N. latitude, and surrounded by the governments of Viatka, Orenburgh, Niznei-Novgorod, and Simbirsk. Its territorial extent is over 22,000 sq. miles; its population about 1,000,000, partly Russians, and partly Tartars, though of very mixed origin. The rivers are the Wolga, the Kama, the Sura, the Viatka, and the Kasanka, besides smaller streams, and a great number of lakes.

KASAN; a city of Russia, on the Kasanka, about four miles above its junction with the Wolga. Many Mohammedan Tartars still reside there, engaged in business. It is a bishop's see, and the seat of a small university, founded in 1803. It has also several other schools. Here are

large soap-works and tanneries; also manufactures of woollen, cotton, lace, and earthen ware. It carries on an extensive trade. The caravans to Bucharia and China pass through Kasan. At a little distance from Kasan is a new admiralty establishment, with a navigation school, magazines, and a dock-yard, where galliots are constructed, and sent down the Wolga to the Caspian sea. Population, 25,000. 208 miles E. by S. Niznei-Novgorod; lon. 49° 21′ 9′′ E.; lat. 55° 47′ 51′′ N. KATAHDIN; a mountain in the state of Maine, situated between the eastern and western branches of the Penobscot river. It is a detached mountain, steep on all sides, and extremely rugged. It was reputed, by the aborigines, to be the residence of supernatural beings. But few persons have visited its summit. It commands a very extensive view, embracing no less than 63 lakes. Its height, as ascertained by barometrical observations, is 4685 feet above the level of the west branch of the Penobscot at its base, and about 5335 feet above the ocean. It may be seen, in a clear day, from Bangor, a distance of 70 miles, and from Dixmont, 80 miles distant.

KATT. (See Frederic II.)

KATZBACH; a small river in Silesia, passing near Leignitz, famous for the victory which the Prussians and Russians under Blücher gained, Aug. 26, 1813, over the French under Macdonald, Ney, Lauriston and Sebastiani. It rained from August 24 to the 28th. Fire-arms could not be used, and the battle was fought hand to. hand. It was short, and was terminated by a furious struggle between the Prussian cavalry under Blücher and the French under Lauriston, together 8,000

men.

The French were broken, and were driven, horse and man, into the raging Neisse and Katzbach. Great numbers perished in the swollen streams. The result of the battle was more surprising, as a great part of the Prussian troops were raw militia. It is one of Blücher's greatest victories. During the battle and the following days, 103 French cannon were taken, two eagles, and 18,000 prisoners. Silesia was delivered, and the consequences were most important, particularly for Bohemia. The battle of the Katzbach took place on the same day that Napoleon repelled the attack of the allies on Dresden.

KAUFMANN, Angelica, a distinguished painter, born at Coire, in the Grisons, in 1741, received her first instruction in drawing and painting from her father,

who, at the time of her birth, was painter to the bishop. Her admiration of the beautiful was early developed. She loved music, and made great progress in painting, under the guidance of her father, whose talents were but moderate, and whom she soon excelled. On her first journey to Italy, where she resided from her 13th year till 1769, in Milan, Florence, Rome and Naples, she acquired great skill; and her subsequent visit to London, where she painted the whole royal family, increased her reputation and improved her circumstances. Here she was elected a member of the royal academy, and here, also, she contracted an unfortunate marriage, of which the following circumstances are related. An English artist, who had paid his addresses to her, offended by her refusal, determined on vengeance. A handsome young man, chosen from the lowest class, was enabled to appear in the house of Angelica, and to become her suitor. She suffered herself to be deceived, and became his wife. The rejected artist now disclosed the deceit. Angelica obtained a divorce, but was obliged to settle an annuity on her husband. He, however, soon died. After her return to Rome in 1782, she was married a second time, more happily, to a Venetian painter, Zucchi, but she never had any children. Zucchi, likewise, died long before her. Angelica then devoted herself to painting till her death, in 1807. Her bust was placed, in 1808, in the Pantheon. She left a select library, some beautiful original paintings of old masters, and a considerable fortune, which she divided among several individuals and charitable institutions. She painted many portraits and historical pictures, the latter chiefly after antiques. She preferred ideal female figures. Her works are remarkable for grace, though the critic may discover in them incorrectness of style and sameness of plan and execution.

KAUNITZ, Wenceslaus Anthony, prince of, knight of the golden fleece, fifth son of count Kaunitz, and one of nineteen children, was born in Vienna, in 1711, and was at first destined for the church, but, after the death of all his brothers, engaged in political life. His talents, aided by a favorable exterior, opened a brilliant career to him. After having studied at Vienna, Leipsic and Leyden, he entered upon his travels, in 1732. In 1741, he was sent to pope Benedict XIV, and to Florence, on a secret mission, by Maria Theresa. In 1742, he went as Austrian ambassador to Turin, where he accom

plished his mission to unite Sardinia more closely with Austria against the Bourbon courts so successfully, that, in 1744, he was appointed minister at the court of Charles, duke of Lorraine, then governorgeneral of the Austrian Netherlands. He conducted the most difficult affairs, in a highly critical state of the Netherlands, to the greatest satisfaction of the empress; but his feeble health obliged him to ask his dismission, and he returned to Vienna. Soon afterwards, however, he appeared as minister plenipotentiary at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (q. v.), where he laid the foundation of his fame as a diplomatist. From 1750 to 1752, he was minister at Paris, and prepared the union of Austria and France, which took place in 1756. In 1753, he had been made court and state chancellor, and, in 1756, was created chancellor of Italy and the Netherlands. Thus he not only managed the foreign affairs of Austria, under Maria Theresa, but had also the greatest influence upon the domestic concerns. In 1764, the emperor, Francis I, raised him to the dignity of prince. As long as Maria Theresa lived, her confidence in Kaunitz was unbounded; but the emperor Joseph did not implicitly follow his advice; of which the unsuccessful attempt to open the Scheldt and to exchange Bavaria, as well as the unfortunate war with Turkey, were consequences. Under the reign of Leopold II, the influence of prince Kaunitz was still less. When Francis II ascended the throne, his advanced age induced him to resign the office of court and state chancellor. He made up his opinions slowly, and after mature consideration. Voltaire was his favorite author, and he had much esteem for Rousseau, who had been for a few weeks his private secretary at Paris. In Lombardy and the Netherlands, he instituted academies. Learned men found free access to him, and he cultivated the arts. The school of art at Vienna is almost entirely his work. Several painters and engravers were indebted to him for his patronage. His love of dress was considered extravagant. He was strictly honest and faithful. He rarely laughed, yet he was affable to all below him in rank. Under Joseph's government, Kaunitz ceased to appear at court, but the emperor often went to visit him, and received much assistance from him in his ecclesiastical reforms; hence he was called, by the court of Rome, il ministro eretico; yet, when the pope was at Vienna, he gave him, as a matter of policy, not the back, but the palin of his hand to kiss, which was for

merly considered the highest favor; but the prince, pretending not to understand this etiquette, took the hand of the pope in his, and gave it a hearty shake. He died in 1794, with the reputation of one of the ablest ministers Austria had ever produced, and the still greater fame of a man of noble character. No minister was ever treated with a longer and more intimate confidence, which was founded equally on his talents and his strict integrity.

KEAN, Edmund; a famous English actor, born in London, Nov. 4, 1787. His father, a poor builder or tailor, procured a situation for him as a figurant in the pantomimes at Drury-lane theatre, when he was only two years old; but here, by the unnatural and forced positions which he had to practise in order to make his limbs more pliable, he became deformed. Some of the actors procured him surgical assistance, his limbs were supported, and he finally outgrew his bodily defects. At seven years, his mother sent him to a little school; but order and obedience were not in his character, and he engaged himself as cabin-boy in a vessel going to Madeira. This situation, however, equally displeased him, and, to deliver himself, in Madeira, he feigned deafness, and played his part so well, that the captain sent him home. In London, he could not find out his mother; but a woman who had had him under her care recommended him to Miss Tidswell, an actress at Drury-lane theatre, who gave him much assistance. At one period, after his return to London, he exhibited as a droll, in a booth. After this, he was placed in one of the minor theatres, and was much applauded in Rolla's address to the Peruvians. From this period, he commenced reading dramatic productions. His protectress recommended him to a company of players in Yorkshire, where he appeared under the name of Carey. Although not more than 13 years old, he performed the parts of Hamlet, Lord Hastings, and Addison's Cato, well enough to please a provincial audience. In Windsor, his talent was applauded by the royal family, in Satan's address to the sun, from Paradise Lost, and the first soliloquy in Shakspeare's Richard III. About this time, he was fortunate enough to attract the attention of doctor Drury, who sent him to Eton, where he remained three years, and is said to have made much progress in classical studies. On leaving Eton, he again took the name of Carey, and went from stage to stage. Playing Hamlet in the

island of Guernsey, a journal there abused him; and when he afterwards performed Richard, he was received with exclamations of displeasure. Kean, for a while, patiently submitted, but very significantly addressed a passage from his part to the pit-"Unmannered dog, stand thou, when I command." Upon this, the disorder increased, and, instead of apologizing, he addressed his audience to the following effect:-"You have shown some symptoms of understanding in applying the words to yourselves." He had to pay dear for this impudence; was obliged to leave the town, and remained in great distress, till some of his friends interceded for him with the governor of the island. Kean afterwards went to Dorchester. In the mean time, doctor Drury, his old patron, had recommended him to the directing committee of Drury-lane, as fitted to revive this declining theatre. He was, in consequence, engaged for three years at Old Drury. Kean appeared for the first time on the London boards, Jan. 26, 1814, in the character of Shylock. The first evening was decisive; but his Richard III made him the idol of the Londoners. In Othello, also, and sir Giles Overreach, he has been unequalled by any contemporary. When he performed Massinger's Jew the first time, the actors, and others of his admirers, presented him with a gold cup, as a token of their esteem (June 25, 1814). In 1820, he visited the United States, and performed in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston, on the whole, with great success. After his return to England, the extravagance and dissoluteness which had always disgraced his character, involved him in great embarrassments, and a second visit to America, in 1825, was attended with little credit or advantage.

KEATS, John; a young English poet, of humble origin, born Oct. 29, 1796, at a livery-stable kept by his grandfather in Moorfields. He was sent to school at Enfield, where he remained till the age of fifteen, and was then bound apprentice to a surgeon; but his inclination to poetry having been cultivated by his teachers at school, he gave way to the ambition of becoming a poet. Keats's first volume of poems, many of which were written in his teens, made its appearance in 1817, when he was in his twenty-first year. This was followed by Endymion, a Poetic Romance, in 1818; and, in the year 1820, he published his last and best work, Lamia, Isabella, and other Poems. Being in feeble health, he was prevailed upon to try

the climate of Italy, where he arrived in November, 1820, and died in Rome, on the 27th of December following. His death has been attributed to the attacks of critics; but it was, in fact, owing to a consumptive complaint of long standing. Mr. Keats had great sensibility and imagination. His Endymion, with all its faults, has much beauty. The fragment of Hyperion, his last performance, obtained the admiration of lord Byron.

KEBIR; an Arabian word, which signifies large, and is found in many geographical names.

KEBLA. (See Kaaba, and Koran.)

KEDGE, OF KEDGER; a small anchor, used to keep a ship steady and clear from her bower-anchor, while she rides in a harbor or river, particularly at the turn of the tide, when she might otherwise drive over her principal anchor, and entangle the stock or flukes with her slack cable, so as to loosen it from the ground. The kedge-anchors are also used to transport a ship, or remove her from one part of a harbor to another, being carried out from her in the long-boat, and let go by means of ropes fastened to these anchors. They are also generally furnished with an iron stock, which is easily displaced for the convenience of stowing. (See Anchor.)

KEEL; the principal piece of timber in a ship, which is usually first laid on the blocks in building. By comparing the carcass of a ship to the skeleton of the human body, the keel appears as the back-bone, and the timbers as the ribs. The keel supports and unites the whole fabric, since the stem and stern-posts, which are elevated on its ends, are, in some measure, a continuation of the keel, and serve to connect and enclose the extremities of the sides by transoms, as the keel forms and unites the bottom by timbers. The keel is generally composed of several thick pieces placed lengthways, which, after being scarfed together, are bolted and clinched upon the upper side.

False Keel; a strong, thick piece of timber, bolted to the bottom of the keel, which is very useful in preserving its lower side. The false keel is provided when the thick pieces which form the real keel cannot be procured large enough to give a sufficient depth thereto. In large ships of war, the false keel is composed of two pieces, called the upper and lower false keels. The lowest plank in a ship's bottom, called the garboard streak, has its inner edge let into a groove or channel, cut longitudinally on the side of the keel: the depth of this channel is therefore reg