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Harrington used the knots that bear their names. Gower
designates the great nobles of his day by their badges, as
is done in the following satirical lines written about 1449:-
The rotel is ded, the swan is goon,
The fiery cressetts hath lost his lyght,
Therefore Inglond may mak gret mone,
Were not the helpe of God Almight.
The castell is wonne, where care begoun
The portecolys" is leyde a doun;
Yclosed we have oure Velvette hatte,
That kepyd us from mony stormys brown.
The white lion' is leyde to slepe,
Thorough the envy of the ape clogge3,

and so on, through interminable further instances.
The Scottish clans wore native plants for their badges:
Chisholm, the alder; Menzies, the ash; M'Intosh, the
box, &c.

The Motto.—In times when each chief tenant under the crown brought his own tenants into the field, and led them,

The

LAPPENDAGES. distinct war-cries were common. The royal cry was "St George for England." The French cried, "Montjoye St Denis;" the cri de guerre of Bauffrement was their name; that of Barr, "Au feu"; Seyton, "St Bennet and Set on." The common Highland cry or slogan was "Claymore"; that of the Medici, "Palle, palle," alluding to their arms. motto succeeded to this (1291); Bruce of Annandale used "Esto fortis in bello"; Courtenay, "Passez bien devant"; Hastings, "Honorantes me honorabo;" Kirkpatrick used the crest of the bloody dirk with the motto "I mak sicker." The Warren motto, alluding to the earls' resistance to the "quo warranto," was "tenebo;" Vernon," God save the Vernon," ill exchanged for "Vernon semper viret." The Scottish borderers, who lived by harrying their neighbours by moonlight, used stars and crescents for their arms, and such mottos as "Reparabit cornua Phoebe " for Scott of Harden, or "Watch weel" of Halyburton. In modern times Sir Dudley Ryder died while his patent of peerage

UTTING.

"

FIG. 134.-Seal of Richard III.

was under seal.. It was given to his son, who adopted as a motto "Fides servata cineri."

Supporters are now placed on either side of the shield, and are usually animals or human figures. They seem to have arisen from the ornaments introduced by the seal engraver, and became heraldic with the practice of quartering. The seal of Edmund Crouchback bears a shield flanked by two wyverns, probably ornaments. That seal (1286) and the seal of Henry of Lancaster in 1300 contain both crest and helm, lambrequin and supporters. The seal of Catherine, queen of Henry IV., has two antelopes, and her husband as prince used two swans. At Naworth the family supporters, of gigantic size, support the principals of the roof of the hall. Under the house of Tudor many families of knightly rank, as Babington, Stanhope, and Luttrel, used supporters, but at this time supporters are only granted to peers, knights of the garter, grand crosses of the bath, Nova Scotia baronets, and a few private persons who hold them by prescription. In Scotland they are used by heads of clans and by a few lowland families. Fletcher of Saltoun uses two griffins.

Another appendage is the Eagle, upon which some North Wales families place their shields, and the double-headed variety so used by nobles of the Holy Roman empire.

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UTTING

FIG. 135.-Counterseal of Richard III.

The Livery has long lost its early signification, and is used only for the dress of the retainers in their lord's colour. At Richard III.'s coronation 8000 badges of the white boar were wrought upon liveries of fustian. A statufe of Henry IV. forbade the use of liveries under heavy penalties, but they reappeared in the Wars of the Roses. Richard III. used "collars of livery," but these were for persons of rank. One remains upon a Neville effigy at Brancepeth.

Crowns, Coronets, and Symbols of Rank.-The crown is the head attire of a sovereign prince. It is usually closed at the top by four arched bars called diadems, and surmounted by a globe and cross. Edward IV. is said to have first closed the English crown. That now in use is a circle of gold, jewelled, edged above with crosses patée and fleurs-de-lys alternate, and closed above with four bars and the cross and globe called in Germany the Reichsapfel (fig. 136). Since the Restoration the crown of the Princes of Wales has been surmounted by two bars, also with the Reichsapfel (fig. 137). They also use the plume of three ostrich feathers, with the words "Ich dien," adopted by the Black Prince (fig. 138). Figs. 139 and 140 give representations of the imperial crown of Austria and the crown of the old kings of France. Pope places three crowns over his mitre or tiara (fig. 141), said to have been severally assumed in 1295, 1335, and 1411. The crown imperial of Charlemagne may be seen on a scutcheon of pretence on the arms of Hanover, as the

The

clector's badge of arch-treasurer. The doges of Venice | is placed above the shield, and beneath the crest. The and Genoa bore a peculiar cap or toque, seen in Greek sovereign and the royal family bear the helmet full-faced statuary, and upon the figures on the arch of Constantine. or affrontée with six bars, all of gold (fig. 151). Those of dukes and marquises are of gold with five steel bars (fig

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set close upon the rim (fig. 148). The baron's coronet, grauted to the order by Charles II., carries six pearls placed on the rim at equal intervals,-four being seen at once (fig. 149). These coronets are all lined with ermine, and enriched with jewels. On occasions of state, when not worn by the peer, they are carried before him on a cushion. The eldest sons of peers above the rank of Fig. 149. viscount wear the coronet due to their father's second title. The crowns of the kings-at-arms are of gold, bordered with and encircled by the motto "Miserere mei, Domine." The ducal, as an ancient form of coronet, is often used without reference to rank, as the base for a crest. It was so used by Sir Simon de Felbrigge in 1442.

A bishop has neither crest nor coronet, but ensigns his arms with a mitre. The bishops of Durham, while palatines, placed their mitre in a ducal coronet; as-though without authority-do the archbishops (fig. 150). The Berkeley crest is a mitre. The ancient mitre was low, and of linen stiffened with vellum. The central band and the nargin, embroidered with fleurs-de-lys or other patterns, were called the orphreys. The pendent side ribbons were the "infulæ." Prelates of the church of Rome ensign their shields with a hat, the tassels of which indicate their rank. A cardinal has four Fig. 150. rows of red tassels, arranged 1, 2, 4, 8, or 15 on each side; an archbishop the same, but green. A bishop has three rows, an abbot two; the abbot's hat is black. Prelates and logates place a patriarchal cross in pale behind their shield. The Helmet also indicates the rank of the wearer.

It

Fig. 151.

Fig. 152.

Fig. 153. Fig. 154. 152). The lesser nobles have silver helmets borne in pròfile with gold ornaments and four silver bars. Those of baronets and knights are of steel, full-faced and open (fig. 153). An esquire's helmet is of steel, represented in profile, with the vizor closed (fig. 154). These distinctions were probably introduced after the Restoration.

The Muntling is a sort of cloak or mantle of fur extended. behind the shield, and sufficiently ample to include the whole achievement. Those of sovereigns are of gold. doubled with ermine, and are called "pavillons." Peers" mantlings are of crimson velvet, doubled with white fur and barred with ermine spots; a duke has four bars, a marquis three and a half, an earl three, a viscount two and a half, and a baron two. Commoners use red mantlings lined with white fur. The prior of St John, whose place was or the right of the temporal barons, used a sable mantling doubled with murrey. The pavillon of France was of blue velvet, powdered with gold fleurs-de-lys, and lined with ermine. Such a mantling may be seen behind the arms of Beaumont in Rothley Temple chapel, in right of their descent from. the blood-royal of France.

Certain officers of state accompanied their armorial shields with exterior marks of their rank. The Earl Marshal placed two truncheons saltirewise behind his shield, tipped above with the arms of England, and below with his own arms. His deputy places one truncheon in bend dexter.

In Scotland the Lord High Constable, the earl of Errol, places on either side of his shield an arm issuant from a cloud, and grasping a sword. Under the old monarchy the French colonels commandant placed the standards of their regiments saltirewise behind their shields.

The Lords High Admiral have been variously distinguished. Thomas de Berkeley bears on his brass a collar of tritons. Thomas, duke of Exeter, sealed with a ship and his arms on the mainsail. The anchor in some form or other was a common emblem.

Merchants' marks are scarcely heraldic, though they took the place of arms with the trading classes. They were usually monograms of the name or initials. They were protected by law as marks on goods, and are seen on merchants' tombs and sometimes in architecture.

FUNERAL ESCUTCHEONS.

Some of the most valuable records in the College of Arms are the certificates of funerals conducted under their superintendence and authority. These gorgeous and expensive ceremonials have happily fallen into disuse, save on very rare occasions, and for royal persons or eminent public characters. The last private funeral conducted with anything like the ancient ceremonial was that of Charles, earl of Shrewsbury, in 1828. All that is now usual is the suspension of a shield of arms in a large black lozenge-shaped frame called a hatchment or achievement against the wall of the house of the deceased. It is usually placed over the entrance at the level of the second floor, and remains for from six to twelve months, when it is removed to the parish church. Even this custom, scarcely consistent with living in hired houses and burying in cemeteries, is falling into disuse, though still not uncommon.

If for a bachelor, the hatchment bears upon a shield his arms, crest, and other appendages, the whole on a black ground. If for a single

woman her arms are represented upon a lozenge, bordered with knotted ribbons, also on a black ground. If the hatchment be for a married man (as in fig. 155), his arms upon a shield impale those of his wife; or if she be an heiress they are placed "pon a scutcheon of pretence, and crest and other appendages are added. The dexter half of the ground is black, the sinister white. For a wife whose husband is alive the same arrangeFig. 155. ment is used, but the sinister ground only is black. For a widower the same is used as for a married man, but the whole ground is black; for a widow the husband's arms are given with her own, but upon a lozenge, with ribbons, without crest or appendages, and the whole ground is black. When there have been two wives or two husbands the ground is divided into three parts per pale, and the division behind the arms of the survivor is white. Colours and military or naval emblems are sometimes placed bekind the arms of military or naval officers. It is thus easy to discern from the hatchment the sex, condition, and quality, and possibly the name of the deceased.

In Scottish hatchments it is not unusual to place the arms of the father and mother of the deceased in the two

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lateral angles of the lozenge, and sometimes the 4, 8, or 16 genealogical escutcheons are ranged along the margin. Undertakers are fond of substituting "In cœlo quies or some such commonplace for the family motto. irregular.

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The literature of heraldry commences with the treatises of Sassoforrato about 1358, De Fosso in the reign of Richard II., and Upton about 1441, all written in Latin and printed by Sir E. Bysshe in 1654. They are followed by the Boke of St Albans, written by Dame Juliana Berners, prioress of Sopwell, and printed in 1486. These, especially those of Upton and Dame Juliana, aro valuable. The lady writes in a mixture of early English and Latin, but her doscriptions are intelligible and copious. These writers were followed by a crowd of others, of whom the chief were Gerard Leigh, Ferne, and Morgan, who wrote in the latter half of the 16th century. Their great aim was to elevate their subject by tracing back the use of armoiries to the patriarchs and heroes of Jewish and pagan antiquity, whom they invested with coats of arms on the type of those used by Norman barons. There are traces of this folly in Dame Juliana, but it reached its height in the writings of her successors, and was not quite extinguished when Guillim wrote his Display of Heraldry in 1610. Guillim, whose work is still a standard, wrote in English, but as late as 1654 and 1688 Spelman, in his Aspilogia, and John Gibbon strove hard to restore the use of a dead language upon a subject to which it was eminoutly unsuitable. In 1722 and 1780 were published the excellent volumes of Nisbet, chiefly relating to Scotland, and of Edmondson, whose list or ordinary of bearings was long very useful to those who seek to identify the name to which a complete work of Papworth. coat belongs, until superseded by the very laborious and far more

Recently the same critical spirit that has pervaded the works of our historians has been applied with equal diligence to the whole subject of heraldry; a number of authors, led by Planché, pretensions and baseless assertions of the earlier writers, have Boutell, Seton, Nichols, and Lower, have set aside all the fabulous sifted the old evidence and adduced much that is new. The whole subject of heraldic and quasi-heraldic seals has been brought under notice by the publication of Laing's fine plates of Scottish seals; and it may truly be said that the real origin and growth of the use of armorial bearings is placed before the reader in the books of these writers in a truthful and most attractive form. (G. T. C.

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The above figure represents the armorial achievement of the dukes of Marlborough, princes of the Holy Roman Empire and of Mindelheim in Swabia The arms are quarterly-1 and 4, Churchill, sable, a lion rampant, and on a canton argent a cross of St George; 2 and 3, Spencer, quarterly argent and gules, in the second and third a fret or, over all on a hend sable 3 escallops of the first; in chief, as an augmentation, upon an escutcheon of pretence argent à cross of St George, charged with an inescutcheon azure, 3 fleurs-de-lys or; the whole contained within the garter, ensigned with a ducal coronet, and placed upon the breast of an imperial eagle. Crests-1, Churchill, a lion couchant gardant argent, supporting with his dexter paw a banner gules, thereon a dexter hand couped apaume of the first, staff or; 2, Spencer, out of a ducal coronet or a griffin's head argent, armed or, gorged with a bar gemelle gules, between two wings expanded of the second. Between the crests the closed crown of a prince of the empire. Supporters-two wyverns argent, wings expanded. Motto "Fiel pero desdichado."

HERAT is a city of great interest both historically and | geographically, and is of even greater interest politically, Its importance at the present day being indicated by its popular designation of the "key of India." Its origin is lost in antiquity. The name first appears in the list of primitive Zoroastrian settlements contained in the Vendidád Sadé, where, however, like most of the names in the same list, such as Sughdu (Sogdia), Mourú (Merv or Margus), Haraquiti (Arachotus or Arghend-ab), Haetumant (Etymander or Helmand), and Ragha (or Argha-stán),-it seems to apply to the river or river-basin, which was the special centre of population. This name of Iaroyu, as it is written in the Vendidád, or Hariwa, as it appears in the inscriptions of Darius, is a cognate form with the Sanskrit Sarayu, which signifies "a river," and its resemblance to the ethnic title of Aryan (Sans. Arya) is purely fortuitous; though from the circumstance of the city being named "Aria Metropolis" by the Greeks, and being also recognized as the capital of Ariana, "the country of the Arians," the two forms have been frequently confounded. Of the foundation of Herat (or Heri, as it is still often called) nothing is known. We can only infer from the colossal character of the earth-works which surround the modern town, that, like the similar remains at Bost on the Helmand and at Ulán Robát of Arachosia, they belong to that period of Central-Asian history which preceded the rise of Achæmenian power, and which in Grecian romance is illustrated by the names of Bacchus, of Hercules, and of Semiramis.

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The natural advantages of Herat are mainly due to its river, which, rising in the high uplands 350 miles to the eastward, where the Koh-i-Babá, the prolongation of the Hindú-kúsh, bifurcates into the two parallel ranges of the Sufíd-koh or "white mountains to the north and the Siyah-koh or "black mountains" to the south, passes in the upper part of its course through a succession of rolling downs of the finest pasture-land, and lower down traverses a more contracted valley, enlivened, however, throughout with smiling villages and orchards, till it reaches the eastern limit of the alluvial plain of Herat. Here at the present day nine large canals (in former. times there were twenty) carry off the waters of the Heri-rúd for the irrigation of the circumjacent plain, which on a rough calculation may be said to contain nearly 400 square miles of land available for cultivation. M. Khanikoff, who visited Herat in 1858, observes that nowhere in the East,--not even at Samarcand or Bokhara or Ispahán, where the art of canalization is supposed to be carried to perfection,-had he seen watercourses constructed with so much skill, or maintained with so much care, as in the valley of the Heri-rúd; and he adds that, although at the period of his visit nine-tenths of the villages of the plain, which in ordinary times amount to nearly 500, were partially in ruins and the adjoining fields laid waste, the cereal produce of the remaining lands was still far in excess of the wants of the settled inhabitants. The Heri-rúd, passing between 3 and 4 miles to the south of Herat, where it is spanned by a magnificent bridge. of twenty-three arches, called the Púl-i-Málán, continues its course westward to the extremity of this rich and fertile plain; it then turns north through an arid country for some 200 miles to Sarakhs, receiving two small streams from the west, the Ab-i-Jám and Ab-i-Meshed, and forming the territorial boundary between Persia and Afghanistan. As the Herirúd is formed of the converging drainage of the Sufid-koh and Siyah-koh ranges, and its volume thus depends on the extent of snow that falls in the mountains, it is impossible to define with any exactitude the limit of its northern course; but in ordinary seasons water is rarely found in the river bed beyond Sarakhs, and never does the stream penetrate to the northward of a line uniting Abiverd and Merv:

and it is of the more importance to note this geographical feature, as in many of our modern maps the line of the Heri-rúd, or Tejend, as it is called in its lower course, is prolonged through the desert 200 miles to the north-westward of Sarakhs.

The city of Herat is in 34° 22' N. lat. and 62° 9′ E. long. It is very centrically situated, great lines of commu-nication radiating from it in all directions-southward to Seistan (200 miles), south-eastward to Kandahar (370 miles), eastward to Cabul (550 miles), northward by Mymeneh to Bokhara (600 miles) and by Merv to Khiva. (700 miles), while to the westward four routes lead into Persia by Turbat to Meshed (215 miles), and by Birjend to Kermán (400 miles), to Yezd (500 miles), or to Ispahán (600 miles). The city forms a quadrangle of nearly a mile square (more accurately about 1600 yards by 1500 yards); on the western, southern, and eastern faces the line of defence is almost straight, the only projecting points being the gateways, but on the northern face the contour is broken by a double outwork, consisting of the Ark or citadel, which is built of sun-dried brick on a high artificial mound within the enceinte, and a lower work at its foot, called the Arki-now, or new citadel," which extends 100 yards beyond. the line of the city wall. That which distinguishes Herat from all other Oriental cities, and at the same time constitutes its main defence, is the stupendous character of the earthwork upon which the city wall is built. This earthwork averages 250 feet in width at the base and about 50 feet in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 feet high and 14 feet thick at the base, supported by about 150 semi-circular towers, and is further protected by a ditch 45 feet in width and 16 in depth, it presents an appearance of imposing strength. Whether the place is really as strong as it looks has been differently estimated. General Ferrier, who resided for some time in Herat in 1846, states that the city is nothing more than an immense redoubt, and gives it as his opinion that as the line of wall is entirely without flanking defences, the place could not hold out for twenty days against a European army; and M. Khanikoff, who, though not a professional soldier, was a very acute observer, further remarks that the whole interior of the city is dominated from the rising ground at the north-east angle, while the water supply both for the ditch and the city would be at the mercy of an enemy holding the outside country, the wells and reservoirs inside the wall, which would then be alone available, being quite inadequate to the wants of the inhabitants; but on the other hand all experience testifies to the defensibility of the position. Not to speak of the sieges which Herat sustained at the hands of Jenghiz Khan, of Timur, and of Ahmed Shab, we have only to remember that in 1837 the Afghans of Herat beat off the continuous attack for nearly ten months: of a Persian army of 35,000 regular troops, supported by 50 pieces of artillery, and in many cases directed and even commanded by Russian officers. The truth seems to be that Herat, though in its present state quite unfit to resist. a European army, possesses great capabilities of defence, and might by a skilful adaptation of the resources of modern science be made almost impregnable. A British engineer officer, Major Sanders, calculated in 1840 that at an outlay of sixty or seventy thousand pounds, which would include the expense of deepening the ditch, clearing the glacis and esplanade, providing flanking defences and repairing tho walls, &c., throughout, Herat might be rendered secure against any possible renewal of the attack by Persia; but of course if an attack by a well-appointed European army were anticipated, more extensive preparations for defence would be required, including probabiy the erection of two independent forts on the high ground at Mosalla and Thaleh-bengi.

The city possesses five gates, two on the northern face, the Kutab-chak near the north-east angle of the wall, and the Malik at the re-entering angle of the Ark-i-now; and three others in the centres of the remaining faces, the Irák gate on the west, the Kandahar gate on the south, and the Khushk gate on the east face. Four streets called the Chahar-súk, and running from the centre of each face, meet in the centre of the town in a small domed quadrangle. The principal street runs from the south or Kandahar gate to the market in front of the citadel, and is covered in with a vaulted roof through its entire length, the shops and buildings of this bazaar being much superior to those of the other streets, and the merchants' caravanserais, several of which are spacious and well built, all opening out on this great thoroughfare. Near the central quadrangle of the city is a vast reservoir of water, the dome of which is of bold and excellent proportions. It is stated by General Ferrier to have been constructed by command of Shah Abbas, and to be a chef d'œuvre of its kind. It is supposed to contain above a twelve months' supply of water for, the entire city, but, as M. Khanikoff observes, it is within easy mortar range of the high ground at the north-east angle of the city, and might thus be destroyed by a few well-directed shells, in which case the ruins of the dome would fill up the basin and the water supply would be lost. The only other public building of any consequence in Herat is the great mosque or Mesjid-i-Juma, which comprises an area of 800 yards square, and must have been a most magnificent structure. It was erected towards the close of the 15th century, during the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein of the family of Timur, and is said when perfect to have been 465 feet long by 275 feet wide, to have had 408 cupolas, 130 windows, 444 pillars, and 6 entrances, and to have been adorned in the most magnificent manner with gilding, carving, precious mosaics, and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Now, however, it is falling rapidly into ruin, the ever-changing provincial governors who administer Herat having neither the means nor the inclination to undertake the necessary repairs. Neither the palace of the Charbagh within the city wall, which was the residence of the British mission in 1840-41, nor the royal quarters in the citadel deserve any special notice. At the present day, with the exception of the Chahar-súk, where there is always a certain amount of traffic, and where the great diversity of race and costume imparts much liveliness to the scene, Herat presents a very melancholy and desolate appearance. The mud houses in rear of the bazaars are for the most part uninhabited and in ruins, and even the burnt brick buildings are becoming everywhere dilapidated. The city is besides one of the filthiest in the East, as there are no means of drainage or sewerage, and garbage of every description lies in heaps in the open streets.

With regard to the population, it fluctuates so rapidly, according to the circumstances of the period, that it is impossible to give any estimate of its normal strength. When Christie visited the city in 1809 it was in a very prosperous condition, having been undisturbed for fifty years, and was supposed to contain 100,000 inhabitants. A. Conolly in 1828 reduced the numbers to 45,000. Before the Persian siege in 1837 the population was estimated at 70,000, but at the close of the war 6000 or 7000 were all that remained. In 1845, at the time of General Ferrier's visit, the numbers had increased again to 22,000, and continued to increase to the time of the capture of the place by Dost Mahomed Khan in 1863, when there were at least 50,000 inhabitants within the walls. Since that time Herat has been a mere provincial city governed from Cabul, and its average population has ranged between 20,000 and 30,000, within which limits must be confined its present estimate.

The maximum population of which the enceinte would seem to be capable may be put o Christie's estimate of 100,000, and it is manifest therefore that when Herat contained a population of a million and a half, as is testified by so many contemporary authorities, the present city could have been only the citadel of this vast metropolis, the great mass of buildings lying along the slopes of the northern hills, where for a space of some 4 miles in length by 3 miles in breadth the surface of the plain, strewed over its whole extent with pieces of pottery and crumbling bricks, is also broken here and there by earthen mounds and ruined walls, the debris of palatial structures which at one time were the glory and wonder of the East. Of these structures indeed some have survived to the present day in a sufficiently perfect state to bear witness to the grandeur and beauty of the old architecture of Herat. The mosque of the Mosellá, for instance, originally built in the 12th century, but restored or rather rebuilt at the end of the 15th century, and intended for the reception of the body of the Imam Reza which Shah Sultan Hussein wished to remove from Meshed to Herat, is, even in its present state of ruin and decay, one of the most imposing and elegant structures to be seen in Asia. "The mosque," says General Ferrier, "is completely covered with a mosaic of glazed bricks in varied and beautiful patterns, and the cupola is of equal the proportions of the arch of Ctesiphon, and the seven magamazing dimensions. Several arcades supported by pillars in brick. nificent minarets that surround it may be said to be intact, for the upper part of them only is slightly injured. Scarcely inferior in beauty of design and execution, though of more moderate dimensions, is the tomb of the saint Abdullah Ansári, in the same Mirza, the grandson of Timur, nearly 500 years ago, contains some neighbourhood. This building, which was erected by Shah Rokh exquisite specimens of sculpture in the best style of Oriental art. Adjoining the tomb also are numerous marble mausoleums, the sepulchres of princes of the house of Timur; and especially deserv ing of notice is a royal building tastefully decorated by an Italian artist named Geraldi, who was in the service of Shah Abbas the Great. The locality, which is further enlivened by gardens and running streams, is named Gazir-gáh, and is a favourite resort of the Herátis. It is held indeed in high veneration by all classes, and the famous Dost Mahomed Khan is himself buried at the foot of the tomb of the saint. Two other royal palaces named respectively Bagh-i-Shah and Takht-i-Sefer, are situated on the same rising ground somewhat further to the west. The buildings are now in ruins, but the view from the pavilions, shaded by splendid plane trees on the terraced gardens formed on the slope of the mountain, is said to be very beautiful.

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The population of Herat and the neighbourhood is of a very mixed character. The original inhabitants of Ariana were no doubt of the Aryan family, and immediately cognate with the Persian race, but they were probably intermixed at a very early period with the Sace and Massagetæ, who seem to have held the mountains from Cabul to Herat from the first dawn of history, and to whom must be ascribed-rather than to an infusion of Turco-Tartaric blood introduced by the armies of Jenghiz and Timur-the peculiar inhabitants of Herat, Seistan, and the eastern provinces of Persia broad features and flattish countenance which distinguish the from their countrymen further to the west. Under the government of Herat, however, there are a very large number of tribes, ruled over by separate and semi-independent chiefs, and belonging proThe principal group of tribes is bably to different nationalities. called the Chahar-Aimák, or “four races," the constituent parts of which, however, are variously stated by different authorities both as to strength and nomenclature. Mountstuart Elphinstone, by far the best general authority on Afghan questions, gives the original four tribes as the Taimenís, the Hazárehs, the Taimúrís, and Zúrís; Khanikoff, on the other hand, whose forte was ethnography, and who made his inquiries on the spot, describes the Chahar-Aimák as the Kipchaks (100,000 families), the Jamshidis (12,000), the Taimenís (60,000), and the Firoz-kohis (10,000 to 12,000); while Pottinger substitutes the Sooní Hazárehs of Kilehnow for the Kipchaks of Khanikoff, and raises the Firoz-kohi Aimáks to 30,000 families. These tribes all dwell in the mountains to the north-east, the east, and the south-east of Herat, and number in the aggregate perhaps a million souls. Major Taylor, who made special inquiries on the subject in 1856, found that the governor of Herat could raise for fighting purposes from these tribes and the allied Turcomans of Merv 47,000 horse and 23,000 foot, but matters have very much changed since Herat came under the government of Cabul in 1863, the recent policy being to lower the infantry regiments raised and paid by the central authority. At fighting force of the semi-independent chiefs, and to substitute present there are perhaps ten such regiments, which can be supplemented by about 10,000 horse and 10,000 irregular foot.

The trade of Herat is also subject to great fluctuation. From its central geographical position it must naturally be an emporium of commerce between Persia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and India, while owing to the richness of the valley, which can usually furnish supplies for 150.000 men over and above the consumption of

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