which the white bears had trod into the ground while devouring its flesh. Although this was difficult from the want of proper instruments, I succeeded in collecting more than a pood (36 pounds) of hair. In a few days the work was completed, and I found myself in possession of a treasure which amply recompensed me for the fatigues and dangers of the journey, and the considerable expenses of the enter prise. The place where I found the Mammoth is about 60 paces distant from the shore, and nearly 100 paces from the escarpment of the ice from which it had fallen. This escarpment occupies exactly the middle between the two points of the peninsula, and is 3 wersts long (2 miles); and in the place where the Mammoth was found this rock has a perpendicular elevation of 30 or 40 toises. Its substance is a clear pure ice; it inclines towards the sea; its top is covered with a layer of moss and friable earth half an archine (14 inches) in thickness. During the heat of the month of July a part of this crust is melted, but the rest remains frozen. Curiosity induced me to ascend two other hills at some distance from the sea; they were of the same substance, and less covered with moss. In various places were seen enormous pieces of wood of all the kinds produced in Siberia; and also Mammoths' horns (tusks) in great numbers appeared between the hollows of the rocks; they all were of astonishing freshness. How all these things could become collected there, is a question as curious as it is difficult to resolve. The inhabitants of the coast call this kind of wood Adamschina, and distinguish it from the floating pieces of wood which are brought down by the large rivers to the ocean, and collect in masses on the shores of the Frozen Sea. The latter are called Noachina. I have seen, when the ice melts, large lumps of

of the 'Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg,' London, 1819, 4to.

Remains of the Elephas primigenius have been found in great numbers in the British Islands. Mr. Woodward, in his 'Geology of Norfolk,' calculates that upwards of 2000 grinders of this animal have been dredged up by the fishermen off Happisburgh in the space of thirteen years. Along the coast of Suffolk the remains of the Mammoth are scarcely less numerous, especially in the pleistocene beds at Stutton. At the village of Walton, near Harwich, abundance of these remains have been found, mixed with the bones of the horse, the ox, and the deer. They have also occurred in many other parts of Essex. They are found at Herne Bay, in the valley of the Thames, at Sheppey, Lewisham, Woolwich, and the Isle of Dogs. They have been dug up in the streets of London, as in Gray's Inn Lane, and in Charles-street, St. James's Square. West of the metropolis they have been dug up at Kensington, Kew, Henley Bottom, Wallingford, and Dorchester. They occur on the south coast at Brighton, Hove, Worthing, Lyme Regis, and Charmouth. Districts in Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Northamptonshire, Yorkshire, the cele brated cave at Kirkdale, have all yielded remains of this gigantic animal, frequently occurring with the remains of the hippopotamus and rhinoceros. Not only are these remains found on the dry land, but they have been dredged up repeatedly in the German Ocean and the British Channel.

"The remains of the Mammoth," says Professor Owen, "occur on the continent, as in England, in the superficial deposits of sand, gravel, and loam, which are strewed over all parts of Europe; and

Mammoth found in Siberia.

earth detached from the hills mix with the water, and form thick muddy torrents which roll slowly towards the sea. This earth forms wedges which fill up the spaces between the blocks of ice. The escarpment of ice was 35 to 40 toises high; and, according to the report of the Tungusians, the animal was when they first saw it 7 toises below the surface of the ice, &c. On arriving with the Mammoth at Borchaya our first care was to separate the remaining flesh and ligaments from the bones, which were then packed up. When I arrived at Jakutsk I had the good fortune to repurchase the tusks, and thence expedited the whole to St. Petersburgh." The skeleton is now in the Museum of the Academy, and the skin still remains attached to the head and feet. A part of the skin and some of the hair of this animal were sent by Mr. Adams to Sir Joseph Banks, who presented them to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. The hair is entirely separated from the skin excepting in one very small part, where it still remains attached. It consists of two sorts, common hair and bristles, and of each there are several varieties differing in length and thickness. That remaining fixed on the skin is of the colour of the camel, an inch and a half long, very thick set, and curled in locks. It is interspersed with a few bristles about three inches long, of a dark reddish colour. Among the separate parcels of hair are some rather redder than the short hair just mentioned, about four inches long; and some bristles nearly black, much thicker than horse-hair, and from twelve to eighteen inches long. The skin when first brought to the museum was offensive; it is now quite dry and hard, and where most compact is half an inch thick. Its colour is the dull black of the living elephants. (On the Mammoth, or Fossil Elephant, found in the Ice at the Mouth of the River Lena in Siberia, with a Lithographic Plate of the Skeleton.' From the fifth volume

they are found in still greater abundance in the same formations of Asia, especially in the higher latitudes, where the soil which forms their matrix is perennially frozen.

"Remains of the Mammoth have been found in great abundance in the cliffs of frozen mud on the east side of Behring's Straits, in Eschscholtz's Bay, in Russian America, 66° N. lat.; and they have been traced, but in scantier quantities, as far south as the states of Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri, and South Carolina.

"But no authentic relics of the Elephas primigenius have yet been discovered in tropical latitudes, or in any part of the southern hemisphere. It would thus appear that the primeval elephants formerly ranged over the whole northern hemisphere of the globe, from the 40th to the 60th, and possibly to near the 70th degree of latitude. Here, at least at the mouth of the river Lena, the carcass of a Mammoth has been found preserved entire, in the icy cliffs and frozen soil of that coast. To account for this extraordinary phenomenon geologists and naturalists, biassed more or less by the analogy of the existing elephants, which are restricted to climes where the trees flourish with perennial foliage, have had recourse to the hypothesis of a change of climate in the northern hemisphere either sudden and due to a great geological cataclysm, or gradual and brought about by progressive alternations of land and sea.

"I am far from believing that such changes in the external world were the cause of the ultimate extinction of the Elephas primigenius; but I am convinced that the peculiarities in its ascertained organisation are such as to render it quite possible for the animal to have existed as near the pole as is compatible with the growth of hardy trees or shrubs. The fact seems to have been generally overlooked that an animal organised to gain its subsistence from the branches or woody

fibre of trees is thereby rendered independent of the seasons which regulate the development of leaves and fruit; the forest-food of such a species becomes as perennial as the lichens that flourish beneath the winter snows of Lapland; and were such a quadruped to be clothed, like the Rein-Deer, with a natural garment capable of resisting the rigours of an arctic winter, its adaptation would be complete. Had our knowledge of the Mammoth indeed been restricted, as in the case of almost all other extinct animals, to its bones and teeth, it would have been deemed a hazardous speculation to have conceived, à priori, that the extinct ancient elephant, whose remains were so abundant in the frozen soil of Siberia, had been clad, like most existing quadrupeds adapted for such a climate, with a double garment of close fur and coarse hair; seeing that both the existing species of elephants are almost naked, or at best scantily provided when young with scattered coarse hairs of one kind only. "The wonderful and unlooked-for discovery of an entire Mammoth, demonstrating the arctic character of its natural clothing, has how ever confirmed the deductions which might have been legitimately founded upon the localities of its most abundant remains, as well as upon the structure of its teeth, namely, that, like the Rein-Deer and Musk-Ox of the present day, it was capable of existing in high northern latitudes."

The kind of food partaken of by these creatures in their northern habitations did not probably differ much from that which they obtain at the present day in tropical climates. Their peculiar teeth enable them to derive a great proportion of their food from the woody fibre of the branches of trees, and in this respect the structure of the teeth of the extinct species was analogous to that of the recent ones. Forests of hardy trees and shrubs still grow upon the frozen soil of Siberia, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that at the time the Mammoth existed in the north of Europe it possessed an arboreal vegetation amply sufficient to supply the necessities of this animal, even in districts where the ground was covered during the greater period of the year with snow.

"We may therefore safely infer," says Professor Owen, "from physiological grounds, that the Mammoth would have found the requisite means of subsistence at the present day, and at all seasons, in the sixtieth parallel of latitude; and relying on the body of evidence adduced by Mr. Lyell, in proof of increased severity in the climate of the northern hemisphere, we may assume that the Mammoth habitually frequented still higher latitudes at the period of its actual It has been suggested," observes the same philosophical writer, "that, as in our own times, the northern animals migrate, so the Siberian Elephant and Rhinoceros may have wandered towards the north in summer.

existence.

"In making such excursions during the heat of that brief season the Mammoths would be arrested in their northern progress by a condition to which the Rein-Deer and Musk-Ox are not subject, namely, the limits of arboreal vegetation, which however, as represented by the dominating shrubs of polar lands, would allow them to reach the 70th degree of latitude. But with this limitation, if the physiological inferences regarding the food of the Mammoth from the structure of its teeth be adequately appreciated and connected with those which may be legitimately deduced from the ascertained nature of its integument, the necessity of recurring to the forces of mighty rivers, hurrying along a carcass through a devious course, extending through an entire degree of latitude, in order to account for its ultimate entombment in ice, whilst so little decomposed as to have retained the cuticle and hair, will disappear. And it can no longer be regarded as impossible for herds of Mammoths to have obtained subsistence in a country like the southern part of Siberia where trees abound, notwithstanding it is covered during a great part of the year with snow, seeing that the leafless trees during even a long and severe Siberian winter would not necessarily unfit their branches for yielding food to the well-clothed Mammoth. With regard to the extension of the geographical range of the Elephas primigenius into temperate latitudes, the distribution of its fossil remains teaches that it reached the 40th degree north of the equator.

"History in like manner records that the Rein-Deer had formerly a more extensive distribution in the temperate latitudes of Europe than it now enjoys. The hairy covering of the Mammoth concurs however with the localities of its most abundant remains, in showing that, like the Rein-Deer, the northern extreme of the temperate zone was its metropolis.

"Attempts have been made to account for the extinction of the race of northern elephants by alterations in the climate of their hemisphere, or by violent geological catastrophes, and the like extraneous physical causes. When we seek to apply the same hypotheses to explain the apparently contemporaneous extinction of the gigantic leaf-eating Megatheria of South America, the geological phenomena of that continent appear to negative the occurrence of such destructive changes. Our comparatively brief experience of the progress and duration of species within the historical period is surely insufficient to justify, in every case of extinction, the verdict of violent death. With regard to many of the larger Mammalia, especially those which have passed away from the American and Australian continents, the absence of sufficient signs of extrinsic extirpating change or convulsion, makes it almost as reasonable to speculate with Brocchi on the

possibility that species, like individuals, may have had the cause of their death inherent in their original constitution, independently of changes in the external world, and that the term of their existence, or the period of exhaustion of the prolific force, may have been ordained from the commencement of each species." Associated with the Elephas primigenius in the Tertiary Beds of England are the remains of another gigantic Proboscidean Animal belonging to the genus Mastodon. This genus possesses two enormous tusks projecting from the upper jaw, and was provided with a porboscis, as may be inferred from the length of the tusks, which would have prevented the mouth from reaching the ground. Like the Elephants they were destitute of canine teeth, and provided with a small number of large and complex molar teeth, successively developed from before backwards. The broad crowns of the molar teeth were also cleft by transverse fissures, but these clefts were fewer in number, of less depth, and greater width, than in the Elephants: the transverse ridges were more or less deeply bisected, and the divisions more or less produced in the form of udder-shaped cones, whence the name Mastodon (uaσrós, and odos), assigned by Cuvier to this genus of Proboscidean Mammalia. Two other dental characters pointed out by Professor Owen distinguish the genus Mastodon from the genus Elephas. The first is the presence of two tusks in the lower jaw of both sexes in the Mastodon. These are retained in the male but shed in the female. The second character is the displacement of the first and second molars in the vertical direction by a tooth of simpler form than the second.

One species of Mastodon has been found in England, the M. angustidens of Owen, the Mastodon à Dents Etroites of Cuvier. Remains of it occur in the formation called by Sir Charles Lyell the Fluviomarine Crag. It belongs to the Older Pliocene division of the Tertiary System.

A species of Mastodon larger than the M. angustidens of Europe has been found fossil in many parts of the United States. This is the M. giganteus. A specimen of the animal nearly perfect was obtained in the state of Missouri in 1840. It was exhibited at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, London, in 1842 and 1843, under the name of the 'Missouri Leviathan.' It was strangely distorted; but having been purchased by the Trustees of the British Museum it has been made to assume its correct proportions, and is now one of the chief objects of attraction in that national collection. The following are the proportions of this gigantic skeleton :-Extreme length, 20 feet 2 inches; height, 9 feet 6 inches: cranium, length, 34 feet; vertical dimensions, 4 feet; width, 2 feet 11 inches; width of pelvis, 5 feet 8 inches: tusks, extreme length, 7 feet 2 inches; projection of the same, 5 feet 2 inches; circumference at the base, 27 inches. It was found near the banks of the river La Pomme de Terre, a tributary of the Osage River, in Burton county, Missouri. The bones were imbedded in a brown sandy deposit full of vegetable matter, with recognisable remains of the cypress, tropical cane, swamp-moss, stems of the palmetto, &c., and this was covered by beds of blue-clay and gravel to a thickness of about fifteen feet. Mr. Koch, the discoverer, states that an Indian flint arrow-head was found beneath the leg-bones of this skeleton, and four similar weapons were imbedded in the same stratum. This indicates that the formation was more recent than that in which the remains of the British Mastodon had been found. Other. remains of this Mastodon have been found in America, especially in the Big Bone Lick, in Kentucky, where it is said the remains of not less than 100 mastodons, 20 mammoths, with bones of the megalonyx, stag, horse, and bison, have been discovered.

Amongst the remarkable remains brought from the Sewalik Hills, in Hindustan, by Captain Cautley and Dr. Falconer are the remains of several species of the genus Elephas and other proboscidean animals. Dr. Falconer, speaking of the group of animals thus revealed by his researches, says :

"This fossil Fauna is composed of representative types of Mammalia of all geological ages, from the oldest of the tertiary periods down to the most modern; and of all the geographical divisions of the old continent, grouped together into one comprehensive assemblage. Among the forms contained in it there are--of the Pachydermata several species of Mastodon, Elephant, Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, Anoplotherium, and three species of Equus; of the Ruminantia the colossal genus Sivatherium, which is peculiar to India, with species of Camelus, Bos, Cervus, and Antilope; of the Carnivora, species of most of the great types, together with several undescribed genera; of the Rodentia and Quadrumana several species; of the Reptilia, a gigantic tortoise (Colossochelys), with species of Emys and Trionyx, and several forms of Gavials and Crocodiles. To these may be added the remains of Struthious and other birds, and Fishes, Crustacea, and Mollusca."

The genus Elephas in this collection which has been deposited in the British Museum includes six species.

E. planifrons, distinguished by the flatness of the forehead and the intermediate character of its molar teeth.

E. Namadicus, with a great development of the cranium, and teeth closely allied to those of the Indian species.

E. Hysudricus, with a turban-like vortex of the skull and teeth, whose structure approaches that of the African Elephant.

E. Ganesa is the most remarkable of the Sewalik epecies. A skull

exists with remains of the other species in the British Museum. The total length of the cranium and tusks is 14 feet; length of the skull 4 feet 2 inches; width 29 inches; width of the muzzle 2 feet; length of the tusks 10 feet; circumference of the tusk at the base 26 inches. The other two species are named E. insignis and E. bombifrons. The species of Mastodon, in the collection from the Sewalik Hills, are M. Perimensis, M. Sivalensis, and M. latidens.

Professor Owen states that a species of Mastodon, nearly allied to M. angustidens, has left its remains in the ossiferous caves and posttertiary or newer tertiary deposits of Australia. From the conformity of the molar teeth Cuvier regarded a Mastodon whose remains have been discovered in Peru as identical in species with the M. angustidens of Europe. Professor Owen regards the M. longirostris of Kaup, found in Germany, and the M. Arvernensis of Croizet and Jobert, dug up in Auvergne, as identical with his M. angustidens.

In the collection of the British Museum, in addition to the species which we have mentioned above, will be found remains of Elephas priscus and E. meridionalis, found in Europe. There is also the remains of a species of Mastodon, M. Andium, from Buenos Ayres. [SUPP.] (Owen, British Fossil Mammals and Birds; Falconer and Cautley, Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis; Mantell, Petrefactions and their Teachings.) ELEPHANT'S FOOT. [TESTUDINARIA.]

ELEPHAʼNTOPUS (from λépas, an elephant, and woús, a foot, on account of the shape of its radical leaves), a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Composite, the sub-order Corymbiferæ, the tribe Vernoniacea, the sub-tribe Vernoniea, and the division Elephantopeæ. It has heads containing 3-4-5 florets, equal flowered, closely collected into a cluster, surrounded by leaves; the involucre compressed in two rows, the leaflets dry, oblong, alternately flat and folded, the inner usually 3-nerved; the receptacle naked; the corolla palmate, with a 5-cleft limb, which has acuminate segments and one recess deeper than the others; the filaments smooth, the branches of the style half subulate; the achenium rather compressed, many ribbed, oblong, hairy; the pappus in one row consisting of several straight paleæ, dilated at the base, but otherwise very narrow, acuminate, equal, and serrated. E. scaber has a hairy dichotomous stem, the radical leaves scabrous, cuneate, and very much narrowed at the base, those of the stem lanceolate. This plant is common in almost all parts of India, in dry elevated positions. It has a stem a foot high, with the heads of palered flowers on long stalks. The roots are fibrous. Both the roots and the leaves are reputed to have active medical properties. The natives on the Malabar coast use a decoction of them in cases of dysuria. There are other species natives of South America and the West Indies. (Lindley, Flora Medica; Loudon, Encyclopædia of Plants.) ELETTA'RIA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Zingiberaceae. The characters of this genus are the same as Amomum, but the tube of the corolla is filiform and the anther naked. [AMOMUM.]

E. Cardamomum, True Cardamom, is a native of the mountainous districts of the coast of Malabar, especially above Calicut, in the Wynaad district, between 11° and 12° N. lat., where the best are produced. It is therefore well placed; for Cardamoms formed a portion of the early commerce, which subsisted between this part of India and Arabia, whence they must have been made known to the Greeks, as they are described by Dioscorides, and mentioned as early as the time of Hippocrates.

The Cardamom plant delights in moist and shady places on the declivities of the hills. It is cultivated from partings of the root in the district of Soonda Balaghaut, but the fruit is very inferior; the best grows in a wild state, at least where no other measures are adopted than clearing away the weeds from under the largest trees, which are felled close to the roots. The earth being loosened by the force of the fallen tree, young Cardamom plants shoot forth in a month's time, and are sheltered by the shade of the branches. The tree-like herbaceous plants attain a height of from 9 to 12 feet. The root is as tortuous and tuberous as that of the ginger, and the leaves, with long sheathing foot-stalks, are from one to two feet in length, placed in two rows, and lanceolate in shape, like those of the Indian Shot (Canna Indica) common in English gardens. The scapes, or flower- and fruit-bearing stalks, make their appearance in February of the fourth year, from the base of the stems, are three to four in number, and from one to two feet long, lax, and resting on the ground. The fruit is ripe in November, and requires nothing but drying in the sun to be fit for commerce. The seeds are gratefully aromatic and pungent with a flavour of camphor, and are regarded as a necessary article of diet by the inhabitants of Asia. They are used in medicine, and enter into a number of pharmaceutical preparations.

E. Cardamomum medium is a native of the hilly country in the neighbourhood of Sytheh, where the plant is called Do Keswa. The seeds of this species are numerous, obovate, with a groove on one side. Dr. Lindley concludes that this plant yields the Cardamomum medium of writers on Materia Medica.

ELEUSINE, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order of the Grasses. E. coracana is cultivated as a corn-plant by the inhabitants of the Coromandel Coast, and is known by the name of Natchuec. According to Schomburgk, a decoction of another species, E. Indica, is employed in Demerara in the convulsions of infants. E. Tocusso is an Abyssinian corn-plant belonging to this genus,

ELEUTHERIA. [CROTON.] ELEDONE. [OCTOPODA.]

ELK. [CERVIDE.]

some

ELLIPSOLI'THES. Mr. Sowerby gave this title to (compressed?) forms of Fossil Cephalopoda, from the Mountain Limestone.

ELLIPSOSTO'MATA, De Blainville's name for a family (the third) of his second order, Asiphonobranchiata, of his first sub-class, Paracephalophora Dioica, of his second class, Paracephalophora, of his Malacozoa. The Ellipsostomata of De Blainville comprehend the genera Melania, Rissoa, Phasianella, Ampullaria, Helicina (including Ampulleira, De Blainv., and Olygira, Say), and Pleurocerus. Of these all but Pleurocerus are included under the Pectinibranchiate Gasteropods of Cuvier; and as the habits of the included genera are by no means uniform, the genera will be treated of under their several titles. [AMPULLARIA.] ELM. [ULMUS.]

ELODIANS. [CHELONIA.]

E'LYMUS, a genus of Grasses belonging to the tribe Hordeineæ. It has 2 glumes, both on the same side of the spikelet, without awns or setæ, with 2 or more perfect flowers, and the spikelets two or three together. Several species of this genus have been described. Two only are natives of Great Britain.

E. arenarius, Upright Lyme-Grass. It has an upright close spike; the rachis flat, not winged; the glumes lanceolate, downy, not longer than the spikelets. It is a coarse grass, common on sandy sea-shores; and, with other grasses, it sends down long fibrous roots amongst the sand in such a way as to prevent its moving about with the winds. On some parts of the coast immense sandbanks are formed by this grass and others, binding down the sands which are thrown up by occasional and successive high tides. Although this grass, according to Sir H. Davy, yields a large quantity of sugar, it is not eaten by any of our domestic animals.

E. geniculatus, Pendulous Lyme-Grass, has a lax spike bent downwards; the rachis winged; the glumes awl-shaped, glabrous, longer than the spikelets. The stem is 3 or 4 feet high, and the spike 1 or 2 feet long, bent down in a remarkable manner at the second or third spikelet. It has been found near Gravesend. Most of the remaining species are natives of America, both North and South. (Babington, Manual of British Botany; Loudon, Encyclopædia of Plants.)

ELYSIA. [NUDIBRANCHIATA.]
ELYSIADE. [NUDIBRANCHIATA.]
ELZERINA. [CELLARIA.]
EMARGINULA. (FISSURELLIDE.]
EMBERIZA. [EMBERIZIDE.]

EMBERIZIDÆ, a family of Birds belonging to the order Insessores and the tribe Conirostres. The most distinguishing genus of the family is Emberiza. It comprises however other genera. The general relations of this family are given under FRINGILLIDE. We shall confine ourselves here to the British genera of this family known under the name of Buntings.

Plectrophanes.-Beak short, thick, conical, the edges of both mandibles slightly curved inwards; upper mandible smaller than the lower, with a small palatal knot. Nostrils basal, oval, partly hidden by small feathers. Wings long and pointed; the first and second quill-feathers of nearly equal length, and the longest in the wing. Legs with the tarsi of moderate length; anterior toes divided; lateral toes equal in length; hind toe strong; claw elongated, and nearly straight.

P. Lapponica (Gould), the Lapland Bunting. It is the Emberiza Lapponica and E. calcarata of other writers. Though a native of the arctic regions, Mr. Yarrell records five instances of its being taken in Great Britain. It is found in Siberia and near the Uralian chain. Towards winter a few migrate as far as Switzerland. It inhabits the Faroe Islands, Spitzbergen, Greenland, and Iceland in summer, and thence westward to Hudson's Bay. Sir John Richardson says, that about the middle of May, 1827, it appeared in very large flocks at Carlton House, and a few days later made their appearance at Cumberland House. The eggs are usually seven, and of a pale ochre-yellow spotted with brown.

P. nivalis, the Snow-Bunting. It is the Emberiza glacialis, E. montana, E. nivalis, and E. mustelina of authors; and the Tawny- Mountainand Snow-Bunting of English writers. It was at one time supposed they were different species, but this arose from the great variety of plumage to which these birds are subject. The predominant colour of their plumage is white, hence the name Snow-Bunting. This bird arrives in this country in the end of September and the beginning of October, and extends from the north of Scotland to the south of England. This bird is rather larger than the last.

Emberiza.-Beak conical, strong, hard, and sharp-pointed; the edges of both mandibles curving inwards; the upper mandible narrower and smaller than the under one, and its roof furnished with a hard bony and projecting palatal knob. Nostrils basal and round, partly hidden by small feathers at the base of the bill. Wings of moderate size; the first quill shorter than the third, which is the longest in the wing. Feet with three toes before and one behind, divided to their origin; claws rather long, curved, and strong. E. miliaria, the Common Bunting, is the most common species of

this genus. It remains in the British Islands throughout the year; and on account of its very familiar presence in corn-fields, is frequently called the Corn-Bunting. It builds its nest in April, and lays four or five eggs of a reddish-white or pale purple-red ground, streaked and spotted with dark purple-brown. It feeds on the seeds of the grasses, of the Polygona, of sorrels, and of cereal plants; also on Coleopterous Insects.

In both sexes of this species the upper parts are of a light yellowishbrown streaked with blackish-brown, each feather being of that colour along the shaft; lower parts pale yellowish-gray, each feather of the fore neck tipped with a triangular spot of brownish-black, the fore part of the breast and the sides with more elongated and fainter spots. E. schaniclus, the Reed-Bunting. It is also called, according to MacGillivray, Black-Headed Bunting, Reed-Sparrow, Water-Sparrow, Ring-Bunting, Ring-Bird, Ring-Fowl, and Chuck. It frequents marshy places, where it is seen perching on willows, reeds, sedge, and other aquatic plants. It feeds on insects, seeds, and small Mollusca. The nest is placed among aquatic plants, and is composed of stalks and blades of grasses, bits of rushes, and the like. The eggs are four or five in number, of a yellowish-gray, with tortuous or angular lines, and irregular spots of black. This bird is easily distinguished from the other species by its black head and white throat.

E. citrinella, the Yellow Bunting, or Yellow Ammer. It is also called in English Yellow Yelding or Yolding, Yellow Yowley, Yellow Yite, Yeldrock Skute, and Devil's Bird. It is a permanent resident in Great Britain, in cultivated and wooded districts, where it is well known. The back and wings are bright red, the central part of each feather brownish-black. The nest is composed of coarse grasses and twigs, neatly lined with fine grass, fibrous roots, and hairs: it is placed on the ground or in the lower part of a bush. It lays four or five eggs purplish-white, marked with linear and angular streaks and a few irregular dots of black.

E. Cirlus, the Cirl-Bunting. This bird is not so common in this country as the last, which it greatly resembles. It was first distinguished as a British bird by Colonel Montague. It is a native also of the south of Europe, and is more frequent in the south of England than in the north.

E. hortulana, the Ortolan Bunting. A very few specimens only of this bird have been taken in England. It is common in the southern countries of Europe, and migrates as far northward as the Baltic. (MacGillivray, Manual of British Birds; Yarrell, History of British Birds.) EMBLICA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Euphorbiacea. It has monoecious flowers; the calyx 6-parted; 3 stamens combined; 3 styles dichotomous; the fruit fleshy, tricoccous, 6-seeded.

E. officinalis is a native of most parts of India. It is a tree having a crooked trunk, with branches thinly scattered in every direction; the male branches spreading and drooping. The leaves are alternate, spreading, one or two feet long, and about one and a half or two inches broad: the stipules small, withering; the flowers minute, of a greenish colour; the fruit a drupe, fleshy, globular, smooth, 6-striated: the nut obovate, obtusely triangular, 3-celled; the seeds two in each cell. The bark of this tree is astringent, and is used in India as a remedy for diarrhoea. The fruit is acid, and tastes astringent, and when eaten acts as a mild purgative. This plant is the Phyllanthus Emblica of Linnæus; and Myrobalanus Emblica of Bauhin. (Lindley, Flora Medica.)

EMU. [STRUTHIONIDE.] EMYS. [CHELONIA.] EMYSAURA. [CHELONIA.]

ENALIOSAURA, a name proposed for the great Fossil Marine Lizards represented by Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus. [ICHTHYOSAURUS; PLESIOSAURUS; REPTILES.] ENAMEL. [TEETH; DENTITION.]

ENCELADITE, a Mineral containing Titanium, a variety of Warwickite. [WARWICKITE.]

ENCEPHALARTOS, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Cycadaceae. The species are found in Africa. Like many of the other forms of Cycadaceous Plants they yield starch in their stems, which are prepared by the natives and eaten ; hence these plants are known by the name of Caffer-Bread or Kaffir-Bread.

ENCHANTER'S NIGHT-SHADE. [CIRCEA.]

ENCHELIS, a genus of Infusorial Animalcules. The species E. sanguinea and E. pulvisculus, according to Meyen, form the Red and Green Snow-Plants which have been described as Conferve, and referred to Protococcus. [SNOW, RED.]

EN'CHODUS, a genus of Fossil Cycloid Fishes, from the Chalk. (Agassiz.)

ENCRINITES, the name by which the petrified radiated animals commonly called Stone Lilies have been long known in Britain: it is also applied generally to the Crinoidea, a family of Animals belonging to the order Echinodermata. [ECHINODERMATA.]

Lamarck arranged the genus Encrinus in his fifth order of Polypes

EMERALD. [BERYL.]

EMERITA. [HIPPIDES.]

EMERY. [ADAMANTINE SPAR; CORUNDUM.]

EMMET, a name used by early English writers for the Ant. [FORMICA.]

EMPALEMENT, an obsolete name for the stamen of a flower. EMPEROR-MOTH. [SATURNIA.] EMPETRA CEÆ, Crowberries, a small natural order of Polypetalous Exogenous Plants, related to Euphorbiacea. They consist of unisexual heath-like plants with minute flowers, having a calyx with a few imbricated sepals that change into about three membranous petals, a small number of hypogynous stamens, and a superior ovary with from 3 to 9 cells, in each of which there is a single ascending ovule. The fruit is fleshy and berried. They are small acrid plants, of no known use, and comprise a few species from the north and south of Europe, North America, and the Straits of Magalhaens. Empetrum nigrum, the Crakeberry or Crowberry, is wild on the mountainous heaths in the north of England. Its black fruit forms an article of food in the northern parts of the world, but is reported to be unwholesome, and to cause headache. A sort of wine has been prepared from it for many centuries in Iceland and Norway; whence the report of real wine which was used at the sacrament being made in those countries.

The white berries of the Camarinheira (Corema) are employed by the Portuguese in making an acidulous beverage, which the domestic physicians esteem in fevers.

There are 4 genera and 4 species of this order.
EMPETRUM. [EMPETRACE.]

laria, and recording but two species, one recent, namely Encrinus Caput-Medusa (Isis Asteria, Linn.), from the seas of the Antilles; the other fossil, namely E. liliiformis (Lilium lapideum, Stone-Lily of Ellis and others).

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Cuvier includes the Encrinites among his Pedicillated Echinoderms, considering that they should be placed near the Comatula; and in the Règne Animal' they are accordingly to be found between the great group of the Star-Fishes and that of the Echinideans.

De Blainville observes that the beautiful work of Guettard ('Acad. des Sc.' 1755) upon the living and fossil Encrinites, showed long ago the great relationship which there is between these and the Comatula, and he remarks upon the arrangement of Lamarck, who followed Linnæus and his adherents in placing them among the Zoophytes, notwithstanding Guettard's exposition and Ellis's confirmation. After alluding to Miller's work on the family, and to Mr. Thompson's description of the living specimen found on the coast of Ireland, De Blainville takes as the basis of his terminology the parts which exist in Comatula, and, adopting the views of Rosinus, rejects that proposed by Miller in his interesting memoir, objecting to the terms 'pelvis,' costal,' 'intercostal,' 'scapula,' 'hand,' 'fingers,' &c., as derived from animals of an entirely different type of form, and inapplicable to the radiated structure.

We find, then, that the pelvis' of Miller is the centro-dorsal joint (l'article centro-dorsal) of De Blainville. The costal' is the first basilary joint of each ray. The 'intercostal' is the second basilary joint. The scapula' is the third, or that on which the radii are supported. The 'hand' is the part of the ray which is divided but not separated. The 'fingers' are the digitations or divisions of the