first produced in the cells of the plant, which enables the spores to find a nidus, and then the disease goes on rapidly, assuming a peculiar type on account of the presence of the fungus: in the same way as vegetable organisms found in diseases of the skin are not to be looked upon as the origin of the disease, but as being developed in textures previously morbid, and as giving often a peculiar character to the disease. Many of the diseases of cultivated crops are attributed to Fungi. The spores of Fungi are very minute, and are constantly floating in the air. They can easily be applied to the surfaces of plants. When they find an appropriate soil they send out extensive filiform ramifications, which spread under the epidermis of plants, raise blisters, and finally burst forth in the form of orange, brown, and black spots, constituting the fructification. They attack the stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit. Different species are restricted to different plants, and even to different parts of the same plant. The forms which the same fungus assumes seem to vary sometimes according to the plant on which it grows. The disease called Bunt, Smut-Balls, or Pepper-Brand, is occasioned by the plant called Uredo caries by De Candolle, and Uredo fætida by Bauer. It attacks the grains of wheat, and may be detected in them in their earliest state. It consists of extremely minute globules of a dark colour, at first attached to a thread-like matter or mycelium. Bauer estimates the diameter of each of the globules at 1-1600th of an inch, and consequently a grain of wheat (reckoned at less than 1-1000th of a cubic inch) would contain four millions such spores. The spores, or powdery matter, have a disgusting odour; hence the specific name given to it. The disease is propagated by contact. Steeping the grain is recommended by some as a means of prevention, and alkaline solutions have been suggested as a remedy. Uredo linearis, which is met with also in this disease, is considered as being a young state of the Mildew-plant. Another disease called Smut, or Dust-Brand is caused by a fungus called Uredo segetum. It resembles the Buntfungus in colour and shape, but its spores are not half so large, and it does not possess a fetid odour. This fungus destroys the ear of corn by first causing the innermost parts of the flower to become abortive, while the pedicels on which these are seated swell and become very fleshy. The fungus then consumes the whole of this fleshy mass, and at length appears between the chaff-scales in the form of a black soot-like powder. It is said also to attack the stem and leaves. When ripe the spores burst through the epidermis, and are dispersed in the form of a black powder like charcoal. The spore is 1-2800th of an inch in diameter. Smut is rare in wheat; it is common in barley, and more so in oats. It is also seen in many grasses, such as Arrhenatherum avenaceum. The disease denominated Rust, Red Rag, Red Robin, and Red Gum, is caused by a fungus called Uredo rubigo. It forms yellow and brown oval spots and blotches upon the stem, leaves, and chaff. The spores burst through the epidermis and are dispersed as very minute grains. The disease is common in corn and in grasses. Mildew is a disease caused by a fungus denominated Puccinia graminis. The ripe spore-cases of this plant are small dark brown club-shaped bodies, their thicker end being divided into two chambers, each filled with minute spores, and their lower end tapering into a fine stalk. The sori, or clusters of spore-cases, burst through the epidermis sometimes in vast numbers. The minute spores seem to enter the plant by the stomata. Some think that they, as well as other minute spores, are absorbed by the roots. The disease attacks wheat. Spring wheat is less liable to this disease than winter wheat, and heavy soils are less subject to it than light ones. Many have supposed that the Barberry is in some way connected with the production of Mildew. This idea has been proved to be erroneous by the experiments of Standinger, near Hamburg, and of Hornemann at Copenhagen. Unger entertains the idea that blight, mildew, and smut are to be considered as exanthematous diseases of plants caused by the spores of Fungi entering the stomata. "Henslow has shown by experiment, that if the diseased seeds of wheat be steeped in a solution of sulphate of copper they will not produce diseased grain, and that the sulphate of copper does no injury to their germination. The solution used is one ounce of sulphate of copper to a gallon of water for every bushel of wheat. Grain also steeped in hot water does not reproduce these fungoid diseases. In East Lothian, with the view of preventing smut, seedwheat is often steeped in stale urine, and afterwards some newlyslaked lime is sifted on it. Sometimes a solution of salt is used as a pickle. Fourcroy and Vauquelin ascertained by analysis that blighted wheat contained an acrid oil, putrid gluten, charcoal, phosphoric acid, phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, phosphate of lime, and no traces of starch. As regards Bunt or Pepper-Brand, Henslow remarks, that upon simply immersing the grain in water the infected seeds float, and on the water being poured out, nothing but the sound ones remain in the vessel. This simple process of separation is not however perfectly effective, because in thrashing the wheat many of the infected grains are crushed, and the spores are dispersed in the form of fine powder which adheres obstinately to the sound grain, by means of an oily or greasy matter found in the Fungi. In order to detach them thoroughly it has been considered useful to add some alkaline ley to the water in which they are washed. The alkali unites with the oil and forms a soapy matter. Lime has been used for this purpose, common potash, substances containing ammonia, and the liquid from stable dung have also been employed; other matters, as sulphate of copper, act by destroying the vegetating powers of the Fungi. "Mr. Ellis, of Barning, Kent, says that the invariable prevention of smut in wheat is accomplished by scalding the blackest wheat in boiling water, and afterwards drying it with lime. The wheat placed in a colander or in a basket is immersed in boiling water for a few seconds, just long enough to wet it completely, it is then immediately dipped in cold water, afterwards dried with lime, mixed with other wheat, and sown. By this means the wheat was always found to be cured of smut, while the vegetating principle was uninjured, great care being taken that the water was boiling, and the wheat taken out of the water as soon as completely wetted. Mr. Ellis tried an experiment on a bushel of the blackest wheat he could procure, which he divided into sixteen equal parts, sowing them all the saine day, but with different treatment. The result at harvest was that the wheat sown without preparation produced 33 black ears out of every 100, while that dipped in boiling water and limed had not a black ear in several thousands which were examined. Many other species of Uredo as well as Ustilago give rise to diseases. They receive their names from the plants on which they are parasitic, and it seems probable that the same species presents various forms according to the situation in which it grows. Ustilago Maydis, a maize smut, is a fungus which gives rise to protuberances on different parts of the maize. The stem, upper leaves, and especially the bracts become immensely swollen when attacked by this disease, and the ovaries, ovules, and male blossoms are not exempt. The parts affected are at first white tinged with red, smooth, and juicy. The cellular tissue increases in volume, and is permeated by radiating hues consisting of mycelium and spores. The spores are twice as large in linear measure as those of the oat smut. At first the small balls contain a dark strong-smelling fluid, but ultimately the masses become dry, and present a quantity of dark dust mixed with irregular threads. Ustilago vittata causes disease in grasses in India. The spores of Ustilago hypodytes also cause disease in grasses. The spores are black and round, and the disease they occasion is denominated grass-smut. The plant is described by Tulasne. According to Leveillé, the immense quantity of black dust resulting from it in the hay-fields of France produces injurious effects on the haymakers. A species of Depazea or Septoria sometimes produces disease in the knots of wheat. Various species of Erysiphe, such as E. guttata, E. penicillata, E. graminis, E. adunca, and E. bicornis give rise to kinds of mildew. Erysiphes are often met with in common pea crops. Some say that Oidiums are merely particular states of Erysiphes. The plant producing mildew in the vine is Oidium Tuckeri of Berkeley. Other species of Oidium probably cause mildew in the peach, rose, hop, pea, and onion. For destroying the mildew in vines sulphur is recommended to be dusted on them. Some also use a solution of hydro-sulphate of lime, made by boiling sulphur and lime in water. A fungus called Rhizoctoma Mali is said to grow on the roots of apples, pears, and quinces, and to cause destruction to the trees. Ergot is a monstrous state of the grain in which the enlarged and diseased ovary protrudes in a curved form resembling a cock's spur, hence the name from the French 'ergot,' meaning a spur. The ovary is black externally, spongy internally, and contains much oily matter. Some consider it as produced by the attack of a fungus, which induces a diseased condition in the ovarian cells. The disease is usually met with in rye, and the name of spurred rye is applied to it. It sometimes occurs in wheat and in barley, and it has also been noticed in Lolium perenne, L. arvense, Festuca pratensis, Phleum pratense, Dactylis glomerata, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Phalaris arundinacea, and Alopecurus agrestis. Ergot consists of a very dense tissue formed by polygonal cells, united intimately with one another, and filled with an oily fluid. It is developed in the unimpregnated ovule of rye, for although extremely dilated by the entophyte and rendered difficult of recognition, the integuments of the ovule increase without completely losing the form which they would have assumed, if they had grown into a true grain, imitating in this respect the ovaries of wheat, in which Tilletia Caries (Bunt) has replaced the seed. The solid mass which has been called Sclerotium clavus by De Candolle, and the filamentous portion called Sphacelia by Leveillé and Fée, and Eryotatia by Quekett, are only properly speaking organs of vegetation. The fungus destined to grow from this apparatus is an elegant Sphæria, probably that called by Fries Cordyliceps purpurea. This plant has been seen by Schumacher in diseased cereal grains, and it has been detected by Roussel in Sclerotium clavus, growing on Bromus sylvaticus and Arundo calamagrostis, and by Dumeril in Ergot of Rye. Tulasne has shown that this Cordyliceps is produced from the Ergot when it is allowed to vegetate. Ergot of Grasses and Ergot of Cyperacea, according to Tulasne, do not belong to the same vegetable species. Rye affected with this disease, when used as bread, is very prejudicial. The Abbé Tessier showed that Ergot caused gangrene in animals that fed on it, and many instances are recorded of gangrene of the extremities occurring in persons who had lived on diseased rye. Ergot is said to prevail in rye grown on wet and stiff land. "The disease which has recently attacked the Potato in various parts of the world is by many attributed to the attack of Fungi. This "Crum attributed the disease of the tubers of the Potato to rupture of the starch-cells, and mixture of their contents with nitrogenous matter, thus causing fermentation, as in the Apple and Grape. Solly objects to the fungus theory of the Potato disease. He says that decaying organic matter is necessary for the growth of Fungi. He thinks that the disease is caused by the presence of putrifying azotised matter in the stem, just below the surface of the soil; that this is carried to all parts of the plant, causes a struggle between vital and chemical forces, and induces decomposition by a process of fermentation. The azotised matter, in a condition to act as ferment, is produced by the state of the season, by deficiency of light, and by other meteorological causes. Analyses show that the constituents of the diseased potato undergo a rapid and important change. Dr. Lyon Playfair and Mr. Phillips found that the amount of albumen and gluten decreased from 2-34 in the sound potato to 32 in the diseased; and when the disease advanced they finally disappeared. when the apices of their roots are too strongly cooled, so may a sudden cold rain following a long warm winter produce a similar condition of the potato plant. It is only after decay has commenced that Fungi and insects attack the plant. 66 Liebig attributed the Potato disease to diminished or suppressed transpiration, depending upon the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. He refers to Hale's accurate researches in regard to the Hop blight, in which the disease is traced to the want of correspondence between absorption and transpiration, and a consequent stagnation and decomposition of the juices. The same thing, he thinks, takes place in the potato in consequence of cold and an atmosphere loaded with moisture; and he shows that in 1845 and 1846, when the disease overran Europe, damp, cold, and rainy weather followed heat and drought just at the period of the most luxuriant growth of the potato. The vessels and cells became charged with fluids; and, owing to the checked transpiration, there was stagnation of the sap and death. Fungi and putrefaction are, according to him, the consequences of the death of the plant. Klotzsch proposes to check the Potato disease by pinching off the extreme points of the branches and twigs to the extent of half an inch downwards when the plants have attained the height of six or nine inches above the soil, and to repeat this on every branch or twig on the tenth or the eleventh week. This check to the stem and branches, he thinks, will direct the nutrient matters in the direction of the increase and multiplication of subterranean as well as aërial branches. This leads to increased development of tuber, and strengthens the leaves and stalks. Tombelle Lomba, of Namur, says that he has saved potatoes from disease by cutting off the stems after flowering with a very sharp sickle, and then covering the ground with earth to the depth of not less than an inch and a half. The top dressing thus applied was not disturbed till the potatoes were ripe. The haulm was removed after being cut. It is said that the tubers acquired a good size and were of excellent quality. If these facts are true, it would appear that while leaves are necessary to the development of tubers the latter on acquiring a certain size can continue their growth by their own proper and unassisted vitality. The general conclusions to be drawn from all that has been said relative to the Potato disease are, that changes are induced in the cells and vessels of the potato by certain obscure meteorological and epidemic causes; that an alteration takes place in the cellulose and in the contents of the cells, which speedily leads to decay; that parasitic Fungi find a nidus in the decaying organic matter, so as to accelerate and give a character to the disease; and that, as yet, no remedy has been devised." For an account of the Fungi supposed to produce Dry-Rot in timber see the article DRY-ROT. In many parts of the world the Fungi afford a supply of food to the inhabitants, although not more than half a dozen species are to be found in the markets of London, and only the common Mushroom, Truffle, and Morel are eaten in Paris; in Italy and other parts of Europe a large number of species are consumed. [AGARICUS.] Dr. Badham, in his work on the 'Esculent Funguses of England,' gives descriptions and drawings of the following species of British Fungi as those which may be used as food : Agaricus acris minor, A. alutaceus, A. atramentarius, A. campestris, A. castaneus, A. caudicinus, A. comatus, A. deliciosus, A. emeticus, A. exquisitus, A. fusipes, A. heterophyllus, A. melleus, A. nebularis, A. orcella, A. oreades, A. ostreatus, A. personatus, A. piperatus, A. procerus, A. prunulus, A. ruber, A. rubescens, A. sanguineus, A. vaginatus, A. violaceus, A. virescens, A. virgineus, A. ulmarius, A. Cæsarea, Boletus edulis, B. luridus, B. scaber, Cantharellus cibarius, Clavaria coralloides, Fistulina hepatica, Helvella crispa, H. lacunosa, Hydnum repandum, Lycoperdon Bovista, L. plumbeum, Morchella semilibera, Peziza acetabula, Polyporus corylinus, P. frondosus, P. tuberaster, Verpa digitaliformis. Too great caution however cannot be employed in distinguishing the edible from the poisonous species. In the markets of Rome an inspector of Funguses is appointed, whose duty it is to examine all Fungi exposed for sale, and none are allowed to be sold but with his express sanction. But it would appear, from a case quoted in Lindley's con-Vegetable Kingdom,' that Fungi which are usually inocuous may, under certain circumstances, become poisonous. The fungus consumed in this instance by a family in Cambridgeshire was the Agaricus personatus, a species sold in Covent Garden under the name of Blewitts, and which all writers agree in regarding as perfectly free from danger. "Mitscherlich says that the change which cellulose undergoes by the action of a peculiar ferment is characteristic of the substance. This fermenting agent is obtained when half putrid potatoes cut up into pieces are placed in water, with portions of fresh potatoes, and allowed to stand till the cells of the fresh portions begin to be easily separable. It is also formed, though more slowly, when fresh potatoes cut up are set aside covered with water; the liquid is filtered, and fresh potatoes, cut in slices, added to it; when these are decomposed, a portion of the liquid may be treated with water, and more slices of potato added, which soon become decomposed, and in this manner increase the activity of the liquid. Hence, just as in the fermentation of an infusion of malt, the yeast, the fermentative fungus, becomes augmented, so does the ferment increase. It only acts upon the cellulose, which forms the walls of the starch-cells of the Potato; first the cells separate from each other, so that it furnishes us with a venient means of obtaining the cells with their contents in an isolated state, and facilitating their examination; the walls of the cells are subsequently also dissolved, and the starch-particles fall out: in this manner, in 24 hours, a slice of potato is rendered so soft to a depth of two lines that this portion can be removed by a pair of forceps, the hard mass of the potato lying beneath the softened layer, so that this process takes place successively from the outside towards the interior; not by the whole of the potato being simultaneously permeated by the ferment to the innermost portion. Exactly the same process as that which we can produce spontaneously, he says, occurs in the Potato disease, which during late years has done so much mischief. In this also the cellulose, and not the starch, is decomposed; and the liquid, which the author had kept for a long time in contact with one of the diseased potatoes, immediately produced the decomposition of a sound one. This decomposition is therefore, he says, not the disease itself but merely the result of it. Its cause undoubtedly depends upon the dying or the previous death of the entire plant, and just as it is well known in the case of other plants that they die The poisonous principles produced in the Fungi have sometimes been employed in medicine, an instance of which is given above in the Ergot. The action of a species of Bovista has been found similar to that of chloroform. [BOVISTA.] The Amanita muscaria possesses an intoxicating property, and is employed by northern nations as an inebriant. The following is the account of Langsdorf, as given by Dr. Greville : "This variety of Amanita muscaria is used by the inhabitants of the north-eastern parts of Asia in the same manner as wine, brandy, arrack, opium, &c., is by other nations. Such Fungi are found most plentifully about Wischna, Kamtchatka, and Willowa Derecona, and are very abundant in some seasons and scarce in others. They are collected in the hottest months, and hung up by a string to dry in the air; some dry of themselves on the ground, and are said to be far more narcotic than those artificially preserved. Small deepcoloured specimens thickly covered with warts are also said to be more powerful than those of a larger size and paler colour. The usual mode of taking the fungus is to roll it up like a bolus and swallow it without chewing, which the Kamtchatkadales say would disorder the stomach. It is sometimes eaten fresh in soups and sauces, and then loses much of its intoxicating property. When steeped in the juice of the berries of Vaccinum uliginosum its effects are those of a strong wine. One large or two small Fungi are a common dose to produce a pleasant intoxication for a whole day, particularly if water be drunk after it, which augments the narcotic principle. The desired effect comes on from one to two hours after taking the fungus. Giddiness and drunkenness result in the same manner as from wine or spirits: cheerful emotions of the mind are first produced, the countenance becomes flushed, involuntary words and actions follow, and sometimes at last an entire loss of conscious ness. It renders some remarkably active, and proves highly stimulating to muscular exertion. By too large a dose violent spasmodic effects are produced. So very exciting to the nervous system in many individuals is this fungus that the effects are often very ludicrous. If a person under its influence wishes to step over a straw or a small stick, he takes a stride or a jump sufficient to clear the trunk of a tree. A talkative person cannot keep silence or secrets, and one fond of music is perpetually singing. The most singular effect of the Amanita is the influence it possesses over the urine. It is said that from time immemorial the inhabitants have known that the fungus imparts an intoxicating quality to that secretion, which continues for a considerable time after taking it. For instance, a man moderately intoxicated to-day will by the next morning have slept himself sober, but (as is the custom) by taking a tea-cup of his urine he will be more powerfully intoxicated than he was the preceding day. It is therefore not uncommon for confirmed drunkards to preserve their urine as a precious liquor against a scarcity of the fungus. The intoxicating property of the urine is capable of being propagated, for every one who partakes of it has his urine similarly effected. Thus, with a very few Amanita a party of drunkards may keep up their debauch for a week. Dr. Langsdorf mentions that by means of the second person taking the urine of the first, the third of the second, and so on, the intoxication may be propagated through five individuals." Fungi are often phosphorescent. The light given out by species of Rhizomorpha [RHIZOMORPHA] in the coal-mines of Dresden is described as giving them the appearance of an enchanted castle. Agaricus Gardneri, which grows on a sort of palm called Britada in Brazil, is highly luminous. The same phenomenon has been observed in A. olearius in the south of Europe, and in two species of Fungi at Swan River. Dr. Hooker describes a luminous fungus as growing upon decaying wood in the forests of the Sikkim Himalaya. It is generally stated that Fungi differ from the rest of the vegetable kingdom, in the absorption of oxygen and the disengagement of carbonic acid gas. In experiments which have been performed, this has been the result; but it is well known that the tissues of Fungi are easily decomposable, and it is more probable that the absorption of oxygen and the giving out of carbonic acid gas is the result of decay, rather than of the true growth of the plant. The following substances were found by Payen in his analysis of Fungi:-1. Water; 2. Cellulose; 3. Three Nitrogenised Substances; 4. Fatty Matters; 5. Sugar; 6. Volatile Matter; 7. Sulphur; 8. Salts, containing Silex and Potash. These substances are analogous to the ordinary products of the decomposition of water, ammonia, and carbonic acid by deoxidation, and must either be formed by that process in the fungus itself, or taken directly up from the substances on which they grow, by absorption. A curious fact connected with the development of Fungi is the occurrence of vegetable cells, referred to this order, in liquids undergoing fermentation. During the conversion of malt into beer, plantcells are constantly observed to be present, and these have been described as a plant, under the name of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae. During the preparation of flax, as now carried on at Belfast, Professor Allman has observed present cells resembling those of Saccharomyces. Whether these are true plant-cells or not, is still a question; and it is still more a question as to whether they have anything to do with the changes going on in the solutions in which they occur. This point is alluded to in the article ENTOPHYTA. They are probably a result, and not the cause, of ferientation. These cells have not escaped the observation of Schleiden, and the following is his account of them : "In the last place, I must mention a highly interesting analogy, which, when more accurately examined, may perhaps one day lead to the most satisfactory explanation of the process of cell-formation-I mean vinous fermentation. We have here a fluid in which sugar and dextrin, and a nitrogenous matter, as a cytoblast, are present. At a certain temperature, which is perhaps necessary to the chemical activity of the mucus, there originates, without, as it appears, the influence of a living plant, a process of cell-formation (the origin of the so-called fermentation-fungus), and it appears that it is only the vegetation of these cells which produces the peculiar changes that occur in the fluid. Whether this organism is really a fungus, is a matter of indifference; but whether it alone, through the activity of its vital processes, determines the process of fermentation, deserves to be accurately determined. "I will here add my own observations on these fermentation-cells. I bruised some currants with sugar, and, having pressed the juice through a cloth, diluted it with water and filtered through folded paper. The fluid was bright red, quite clear and transparent, and, under the microscope, showed no trace of granules, but presented a number of little drops of a pure clear oil. At the end of twenty-four hours the whole fluid was opalescent, and presented, under the microscope, a number of granules suspended in it. On the second day these granules had greatly increased, and there appeared amongst them perfectly-formed ferment-cells. There also appeared, now and then, vesicles of carbonic acid gas. On the fourth day fermentation was very active. At the bottom of the vessel and on the surface of the fluid, yeast had formed; but these yeasts consisted of single cells, or several attached one to another. In the solitary cells could be observed the way in which one cell was formed from another. The ferment-cells do not in this state permit of a distinction between the contents and the membrane of the cell. In the midst of the cell there is a transparent spot; but whether hollow, or a solid nucleus, I could not decide. The remaining parts appeared entirely homogeneous, yellowish like a nitrogenous substance, sometimes mixed with small solitary granules. In a similar way, a solution of sugar with elder-flowers was examined, and gave similar results. Other results were obtained in the following way :-Pure white protein (albumen) from the white of an egg, was dried, and rubbed down with sugar, and left to ferment: the fluid at first was perfectly clear. On the third day, the small portions of protein, which at the commencement exhibited a sharply angular aspect, assumed partly a granular aspect, and some a more or less rounded form. These globules showed an active molecular movement, and some appeared strung together. On the fourth day there was seen between these granules round or elongated cells, which were either solitary, or arranged together in a line with a tendency to the formation of branched fibres. These cells were not more than one-third of the diameter of ordinary ferment-cells. An active fermentation went on, and gas-bubbles were given out from the protein-granules and the linear cells. Proper ferment-cells did not make their appearance. Fluid albumen, mixed with sugar, and filtered, became thickened on the second day, and contained little granules of albumen (coagulated?). The further phenomena were similar to those exhibited by the preceding, except that there were developed a few true ferment-cells. Protein moistened with water displayed the same appearances as when mixed with sugar and water; ultimately putrefaction came on, and the development of Infusoria, but the vegetable formation preceded. There appears to be two very different types of ferment-cells, according as the fluid contains organic acids and essential oils or not. From the phenomena exhibited by the ferment-cells, one might be inclined to regard them as similar to animal-cells, which are formed through a cavity in the cytoblast, and which afford indications of the nucleoli in their highest development. But this analogy is not tenable, and the above observations must be regarded as imperfect. If we take fully-developed ferment-cells, and treat them with ether, alcohol, or caustic alkalies, there will be found in the fluid a number of globular delicate cells, with thin but clearly distinguishable walls, which contain a clear fluid, with here and there very small granules, which, alone or in groups, are attached to the inner surface of the cell-wall, and (almost?) always a large round flat body (a cytoblast?)." The classification of Fungi has occupied the attention of many observers. That of Fries is the foundation of most of the systems adopted by modern writers. Fries in the first place divides the whole order into four Cohorts, distinguished by the following characters :— Cohort I. HYMENOMYCETES. A Hymenium present; that is, the fungus opened out into a fructifying membrane, in which the spores (seeds) are placed, usually in the inside of asci (transparent simple cases). The texture wholly filamentous. Cohort II. PYRENOMYCETES. A Perithecium present; that is, the fungus closed up; then perforated by a hole or irregular laceration, and inclosing a distinct kernel holding asci. Texture obscurely cellular; that of the stroma (receptacle) somewhat filamentous. Cohort. III. GASTEROMYCETES. A Peridium present; that is, the fungus at first closed up, and containing loose spores having no asci. The texture cellular. Cohort IV. CONIOMYCETES. Spores naked; that is, the fungus in its elementary state, eventually having the spores quite naked, although they may have been covered at first. The texture between filamentous and cellular; and the thallus often apparently absent. He then subdivides these cohorts each into four Orders, as follows:Cohort I.-HYMENOMYCETES. Order 1. Pileati. The Hymenium on the under side, and having asci. (Fig. 1, Agaricus.) Order 2 Elvellacei. The Hymenium on the upper side, and having asci. (Fig. 2, Morchella.) 3 Gasteromycetous Fungi. 13 and 14, Arcyria punicea, magnified; 15, 16, Spumaria mucilago, magnified; 17, 18, Scleroderma Cepa, magnified; 19, 20, Chaetomium elatum, magnified. Cohort IV.-CONIOMYCETES. Order 1. Tubercularini. Spore-cases plunged in an entangled receptacle, upon a free receptacle. (Figs. 21, 22, Fusarium.) Order 2. Mucorini. Spore-cases upon a filamentous receptacle, at first inclosed in a little peridium. (Figs. 25, 26, Stilbum.) Order 3. Macedines. Spore-cases at first concealed by filaments. (Figs. 23, 24, Aspergillus.) Order 4. Hypodermi. Spore-cases springing from under the cuticle of trees. Figs. 28, 29, Exosporium.) Pyrenomycetous Fungi. 6, Cucurbitaria cinnabarina, magnified; 7, a section of the same; 8 and 9, Cenangium ferruginosum, magnified; 10, Sphæronema subulatum, magnified; 11, 12, Actinothyrium graminis, magnified. Cohort III.-GASTEROMYCETES. Order 1. Angiogastres. Spore-cases immersed in a receptacle distinct from the peridium. Order 2. Trichospermi. Spore-cases naked, among filaments distinct from the peridium. (Figs. 17, 18, Scleroderma; figs. 13, 14, Arcyria.) Order 3. Trichodermacei. Spore-cases naked, covered by filaments constituting a peridium. (Figs. 15, 16, Spumaria.) Order 4. Sclerotiacei. Spore-cases immersed in a receptacle constituting the peridium. (Figs. 19, 20, Chatomium.) Coniomycetous Fungi. 21, 22, Fusarium tremelloides, magnified; 23, a stem of grass covered with Aspergillus penicillatus; 24, the fungus itself, magnified; 25, Stilbum tomentosum, growing on a piece of wood; 26, a highly magnified representation of the same; 27, a spore case; 28, Exosporium Tillæ, growing on a leaf; 29, a section of the same magnified; 30, three of the spore-cases, still more magnified. The following arrangement of the Fungi is given in Lindley's 'Vegetable Kingdom' : Spores generally quaternate, on distinct Sporo-Hymenomycetes, or phores. Hymenium naked. J Agaricaceae. FUNGIA. [MADREPHYLLICA.] FURNARIUS. [CERTHIADE.] FURZE. [ULEX.] FUSTIC. This name appears to be derived from Fustet, the French name of a yellow dye-wood, the produce of Venetian sumach. A wood similar in colour and uses, but larger in size, having been subsequently imported from the New World, had the same name applied to it with the addition of Old, while the other, being smaller, is called Young Fustic; but these, so far from being the produce of the same tree at different ages, do not even belong to the same genus. Young Fustic, or as it is sometimes called Zante Fustic, is the produce of Rhus Cotinus (Anacardiaceae), a native of Italy, the south of France, and of Greece; much of it is exported from Patras in the Morea; and it also extends into Asia. It is supposed to be the Cotinus of Pliny, being still called Scotino near Valcimara, in the Apennines, where it is cultivated on account of its uses in tanning. The root and the wood of this shrub are both imported, deprived of their bark, and employed for dyeing a yellow colour approaching to orange, upon wool or cottons, prepared either with alum or the nitromuriate of tin with the addition of tartar. The colour is a beautiful bright yellow, and permanent when proper mordants are employed. Only small quantities of this kind of Fustic are imported. Dr. Sibthorp was of opinion that Rhamnus infectoria, or R. oleoides, of which the berries are called French and Persian Berries, yielded the Fustic of commerce, and informs us that its yellow wood is called by the Greeks 'chrysoxylon.' He also thought that it was the Lycium of Dioscorides, but this has been shown by Dr. Royle to be a species of Berberis, of which genus all the species have yellow wood. Old Fustic, the 'Bois Jaune' of the French, is on the contrary the produce of a large tree, Morus tinctoria, the Dyer's Mulberry, of the natural family of Urticaceae, a native of Tropical America and the West India Islands. The tree attains a height of 60 feet; the wood is yellow-coloured, hard, and strong, but easily splintered, and is imported in the form of large logs or blocks. The yellow colour which it affords with an aluminous base, though durable, is not very bright. M. Chaptal discovered that glue, by precipitating its tannin, enabled its decoctions to die yellow almost as bright as those of weld and quercitron bark. The Fustic from Cuba is preferred, and fetches the highest price, varying from 81. to 97. 10s., while that from Jamaica or Columbia varies from 57. 10s. to 6l. 10s. per ton. The tree is figured by Sloane, and noticed by Marcgrave and Piso. Browne describes it as a native of Jamaica, and deserving the attention of planters, as it is only propagated by birds, who are fond of its sweet roundish fruit. The several countries from which Fustic was imported, and the respective quantities received from each, were in 1836 AD-FLY. ESTRIDE.] GADADIDE, Family of Fishes, generally arranged as the first of the sub-brachiate division of the Malacopterygii. This family embraces the whole of the species of the Linnæan genus Gadus. They are easily known by the position of the ventral fins under the throat, and the pointed character of these fins. The body is rather long, a little compressed, and covered with small soft scales. The head is well-proportioned and naked. All their fins are soft. The jaws and front of the vomer have unequal pointed teeth of middle or small size, and disposed in several rows like a card or rasp. The gill-covers are large, and they have seven rays. Most of the species have the dorsal fin contained in two or three bundles; they have also fins behind the vent, and a distinct caudal fin. The stomach is large, and the intestine long. The air-bladder is large and strong, and in some cases notched on the margins. The greater number of the species of Gadida live in the cold or temperate seas, and furnish the greater portion of the fish obtained in the fisheries of Europe and America. The flesh of most of the species is white, easily separable into flakes, is agreeable to the taste, and easy of digestion. They are probably more useful to man than any other family of fishes. Their reproductive powers are very great, and the numbers in which they exist in some parts of the ocean is perfectly incalculable. A detailed account of these fish is given under their generic names. The following are the British species of this genuз as given in the 'British Museum Catalogue' : G V. Motella. [MOTELLA.] 1. Motella tricirrata, Three-Bearded Rock-Ling. 2. M. cimbria, Four-Bearded Rock-Ling. 3. M. mustela, Five-Bearded Rock-Ling. 4. M. argenteola, Silvery Gade. 1. Brosmius Brosme, Torsk. VII. Phycis. [PHYCIS.] 1. Phycis bifurcus, Forked Hake. VIII. Raniceps. [RANICEPS.] 1. Raniceps fuscus, Trifurcated Hake. The genus Brotula is found in the West Indian Seas, and Lepidoleprus in the Mediterranean and Atlantic Seas. [BROTULA; LEPIDOLEPRUS.] GADOLINITE, a Mineral, containing Yttrium. GADWALL. [DUCKS.] [YTTRIUM.] GA'GEA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Liliace, and the tribe Asphodeleæ. It has a perianth of six patent leaves, the stamen adhering to the base of the perianth; the anthers erect, attached by their bases. The flowers of the species are corymbose or umbellate. G. lutea (the Ornithogalum luteum of many botanists) has the radical leaves usually solitary, linear-lanceolate, flat; the bracts two, opposite; the peduncles umbellate, simple, glabrous; the segments of the perianth oblong, obtuse; the bulb ovate, solitary. The stem of this plant is about 6 inches high, and shorter than the leaves. Its flowers are yellow. It is a native of England and Scotland in woods, but is a rare plant. It is a native of Europe, and is found on the Alps in Switzerland. Koch describes 10 species of this genus as natives of Germany and Switzerland. (Babington, Manual of British Botany; Koch, Flora Germanica.) GAHNITE, a Mineral, also called Automolite. It is a variety of Spinel, containing 34.8 per cent. of oxide of zinc. It has a dark green or black colour. Its hardness is 75 to 8, and specific gravity 4.26. It is infusible alone, and nearly so with borax. With soda it forms at first a dark scoria, and when fused again with more soda, a ring of oxide of zinc on the charcoal. GALAGO. [LEMURIDE.] GALANGA, or GALANGAL, is usually supposed to have been introduced by the Arabs, but it was previously mentioned by Ætius. The Arabs call it Kholingan, which appears to be derived from the Hindoo Koolinjan, or Sanscrit Koolunjuna, indicating the country |