substances. These forms, when materialized, are called forma substantiales or formæ nativa; they are the essences of things, and in themselves have no relation to the accidents of things. Things are temporal, the ideas perpetual, God eternal. The pure form of existence, that by which God is God, must be distinguished from the three persons who are God by participation in this form. The form or essence is one, the persons or substances three. It was this distinction between Deitas or Divinitas and Deus that led to the condemnation of Gilbert's doctrine.

See Ritter, Gesch. d. Phil., vii. 437-74: Hauréan, Phil. Scolastique, 2d ed., i. 447-78; Stöckl, Phil. d. Mittelalters, i. 272-88. GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST (c. 1083-1189), founder of the order of Gilbertines (Ordo Gilbertinorum Canonicorum, Ordo Sempringensis), was born about the year 1083 at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, where his father, Jocelyn de Sempringham, a Norman noble who had taken part in the Conquest, had settled. On the completion of a liberal education, received partly in England and partly in France, Gilbert was ordained a priest in 1123, having been presented by his father to the united livings of Sempringham and Tirington. About 1135 he established in the immediate vicinity of his parish church a religious house for the reception of some destitute girls; the rule he prescribed was substantially that of St Benedict, but the restrictions laid upon the communication of the inmates with the outer world were unusually severe. Subsequently the labourers who tilled the lands with which this establishment had been endowed were also formed into a religious community, under a rule resembling that of the Austin Friars, their house being placed close beside that of the nuns. Similar institutions elscwhere were encouraged by various English proprietors, and | placed under the superintendence of Gilbert, who at last made application to Pope Eugenius III. to have them all merged in the Cistercian order (1148). This request, however, was refused, and Gilbert continued to act as superior of the monasteries he had founded for many years; although at the time of his death, on the 3d of February 1189, that dignity was held by Roger, one of his disciples. In 1189 the Gilbertines are said to have possessed thirteen monasteries, with almshouses, hospitals, and orphanages attached; and the community numbered in all upwards of 700 male and 1100 female members. At the time of their suppression the total number of Gilbertine houses in England and Wales had increased to about twenty-five. Gilbert, who had sided and suffered with the church in the quarrels between Henry II. and Thomas à Becket, was canonized by Innocent III. in 1202; and his name is commemorated in the martyrologies on the 4th of February. The Gilbertinorum Statuta and a series of Exhortationes ad Fratres are attributed to him (see the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum, Feb. 4). GILBERT ISLANDS. See POLYNESIA.

GILDAS, or GILDUS (c. 516-570), the earliest of British historians, surnamned by some Sapiens, and by others Badonicus, seems to have been born in the year 516. Regarding him little certain is known, beyond some isolated particulars that may be gathered from hints dropped in the course of his work. Two short treatises exist, purporting to be lives of Gildas, and ascribed respectively to the 11th and 12th centuries; but the writers of both are believed to have confounded two, if not more, persons that had borne the name. It is from an incidental remark of his own, namely, that the year of the siege of Mount Badon-one of the battles fought between the Saxons and the Britonswas also the year of his own nativity, that the date of his birth has been derived; the place, however, is not mentioned. His assertion that he was moved to undertake his task mainly by "zeal for God's house and for His holy law," and the very free use he has made of quotations from the Bible, leave scarcely a doubt that he was an ecclesiastic of some

order or other. In addition, we learn that he went abroad, probably to France, in his thirty-fourth year, where, alter 10 years of hesitation and preparation, he composed, about 560, the work bearing his name. His materials, he tells us, were collected from foreign rather than native sources, the latter of which had been put beyond his reach by circumstances. The Cambrian Annals give 570 as the year of his death.

The writings of Gildas have come down to us under the title of Gilde Sapientis de Excidio Britannic Liber Querulus. Though at first written consecutively, the work is now usually divided into three portions, -a preface, the history proper, and an epistle, the last, which is largely made up of passages and texts of Scripture brought together for the purpose of condemning the vices of his countrymen and their rulers, being the least important, though by far the longest of the three. In the second he passes in brief review the history of Britain from its invasion by the Romans till his own times. Among other matters reference is made to the introduction of Christianity in the reign of Tiberius; the persecution under Diocletian; the spread of the Arian heresy; the election of Maximus as emperor by the legions in Britain, and his subsequent death at Aquileia; the incursions of the Picts and Scots into the southern part of the island; the temporary assistance rendered to the harassed Britons by the Romans; the final abandonment of the island by the latter; the coming of the Saxons and their reception by Guortigern (Vortigern); and, finally, the conflicts between the Britons, led by a noble Roman, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the new invaders. Unfortunately, on almost every point on which he touches, the statements of Gildas are vague and obscure. With one exception already alluded to, no dates are given, and events are not always taken up in the order of their occurrence. These faults are of less importance during the period when Greek and Roman writers notice the affairs of Britain; but they become more serious when, as is the case from nearly the beginning of the 5th century to the date of his death, Gildas's brief narrative is our only authority for most of what passes current as the history of our island during those years. Thus it is on his sole, though in this instance perhaps trustworthy, testimony that the famous letter rests, said to have been sent to Rome in 446 by the despairing Britons, commencing:-"To Agitius (Aetius), consul for the third time, the groans of the Britons."

Gildas's treatise was first published in 1525 by Polydore Vergil, but with many avowed alterations and omissions. Forty-three years later Josseline, secretary to Archbishop Parker, issued a new edition of it more in conformity with manuscript authority; and in 1691 a still more carefully revised edition appeared at Oxford by Thomas Gale. It was frequently reprinted on the Continent during the 16th century, and once or twice since. The next English edition was that published by the English Historical Society in 1838, and edited by the Rev. J. Stevenson. Lastly, the text of Gildas, with elaborate introductions and the various readings of existing manuscripts, is included in the Monumenta Historica Britannica, edited by Petrie and Sharpe, London, 1848.

GILDING, the art of spreading or covering gold, either by mechanical or by chemical means, over the surface of a body for the purpose of ornament. The art of gilding was not unknown among the ancients. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were accustomed to gild wood and metals; and gilding by means of gold plates is frequently mentioned in the books of the Old Testament. Pliny informs us that the first gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction of Carthage, under the censorship of Lucius Mummius, when the Romans began to gild the ceilings of their temples and palaces, the Capitol being the first place on which this enrichment was bestowed. But he adds that luxury advanced on them so rapidly that in a little time you might see all, even private and poor persons, gild the walls, vaults, and other parts of their dwellings. Owing to the compara

tive thickness of the gold-leaf used in ancient gilding, the traces of it which yet remain are remarkably brilliant and solid. Gilding has in all times occupied an important place in the ornamental arts of Oriental countries; and the native processes pursued in India at the present day may be taken as typical of the art as practised from the earliest periods. For the gilding of copper, employed in the decoration of temple domes and other large works, the following is an outline of the processes employed. The metal surface is thoroughly scraped, cleaned, and polished, and next heated in a fire sufficiently to remove any traces of grease or other impurity which may remain from the operation of polishing. It is then dipped in an acid solution prepared from dried unripe apricots, and rubbed with pumice or brick powder. Next, the surface is rubbed over with mercury which forms a superficial amalgam with the copper, after which it is left some hours in clean water, again washed with the acid solution, and dried. It is now ready for receiving the gold, which is laid on in leaf, and, on adhering, assumes a grey appearance from combining with the mercury, but on the application of heat the latter metal volatilizes, leaving the gold a dull greyish hue. The colour is brought up by means of rubbing with agate burnishers. The weight of mercury used in this process is double that of the gold laid on, and the thickness of the gilding is regulated by the circumstances or necessities of the case. For the gilding of iron or steel, the surface is first scratched over with chequered lines, then washed in a hot solution of green apricots, dried, and heated just short of red-heat. The gold-leaf is then laid on, and rubbed in with agate burnishers, when it adheres by catching into the prepared scratched surface.

Modern gilding is applied to numerous and diverse surfaces and by various distinct processes, so that the art is prosecuted in many ways, and is part of widely different ornamental and useful arts. It forms an important and essential part of frame-making (see CARVING AND GILDING); it is largely employed in connexion with cabinet-work, decorative painting, and house ornamentation; and it also bulks largely in bookbinding and ornamental leather work. Further, gilding is much employed for coating baser metals, as in button-making, in the gilt toy trade, in electro-gilt reproductions, and in electro-plating; and it is also a characteristic feature in the decoration of pottery, porcelain, and glass. As details of the processes employed in connexion with these various substances will be found in the parts of this work where the technical processes to which they are related are described, it is only necessary here to indicate how the processes of gilding differ from each other.

The various processes fall under one or other of two heads-mechanical gilding and gilding by chemical agency.

MECHANICAL GILDING embraces all the operations by which gold-leaf is prepared (see GOLD-BEATING), and the several processes by which it is mechanically attached to the surfaces it is intended to cover. It thus embraces the burnish or water-gilding and the oil-gilding of the carver and gilder, and the gilding operations of the house decorator, the sign-painter, the bookbinder, the paperstainer, and several others. Polished iron, steel, and other metals are gilt mechanically by applying gold-leaf to the metallic surface at a temperature just under red-heat, pressing the leaf on with a burnisher, and reheating, when additional leaf may be laid on. The process is completed by cold burnishing.

CHEMICAL GILDING embraces those processes in which the gold used is at some stage in a state of chemical combination. Of these the following are the principal:

Cold Gilding. In this process the gold is obtained in a state of extremely fine division from a chemical compound, and applied by mechanical means. Cold gilding on silver is performed by a solution of gold in aqua-regia, applied by dipping a linen rag into the solution, burning it, and rubbing the black and heavy ashes on the silver with the finger or a piece of leather or cork. Wet gilding is effected by means of a solution of gold in ether, obtained by treating a dilute solution of chloride of gold with twice its quantity of ether. The liquids are agitated and allowed to rest, when the ether separates and floats on the surface of the acid. The whole mixture is then poured into a funnel with a small aperture, and allowed to

rest for some time, when the acid is run off and the ether separated. The ether will be found to have taken up all the gold from the acid, metal is polished with the finest emery and spirits of wine. The and may be used for gilding iron or steel, for which purpose the ether is then applied with a small brush, and as it evaporates it deposits the gold, which can now be heated and polished. For small delicate figures a pen or a fine brush may be used for laying on the ether solution. Fire-gilding or Wash-gilding is a process by which an amalgam of gold is applied to metallic surfaces, the mercury being subsequently volatilized, leaving a film of gold or, according to Struve, an amalgam containing from 13 to 16 per cent. of mercury. In the preparation of the amalgam the gold must first be reduced to thin plates or grains, which are heated red hot, and thrown into mercury previously heated, till it begins to smoke. Upon stirring the mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally disappears. The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as six or eight to one. When the amalgam is cold it is squeezed through chamois leather for the purpose of separating the superfluous mercury; the gold, with about twice its weight of mercury, remains behind, forming a yellowish silvery mass of the consistence of butter. When the metal to be gilt is wrought or chased, it ought to be covered with quicksilver before the amalgam is applied, that this may be more easily spread; but when the surface of the metal is plain, the amalgam may be applied to it direct. When no such preparation is applied, the surface to be gilded is simply bitten and cleaned with nitric acid. A deposit of mercury is obtained on a metallic surface by means of "quicksilver water," a solution of nitrate of mercury, the nitric acid attacking the metal to which it is applied, and thus leaving a film of free metallic mercury. The amalgam being equally spread over the prepared surface of the metal, the mercury is then sublimed by a heat just sufficient for that purpose; for, if it is too great, part of the gold may be driven off, or it may run together and leave some of the surface of the metal bare. When the mercury has evaporated, which is known by the surface having entirely become of a dull yellow colour, the metal must undergo other operations, by which the fine gold colour is given to it. First, the gilded surface is rubbed with a scratch brush of brass wire, until its surface be smooth; then it is covered over with a composition called "gilding wax," and again exposed to the fire until the wax is burnt off. This wax is composed of beeswax mixed with some of the following substances, viz., red ochre, verdigris, copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax; but, according to Dr Lewis, the saline substances alone are sufficient, without any By this operation the colour of the gilding is heightened; and the effect seems to be produced by a perfect dissipation of some mercury remaining after the former operation. The dissipation is well effected by this equable application of heat. The gilt surface is then covered over with a saline composition, consisting of nitre, alum, or other vitriolic salts, ground together, and mixed up into a paste with water or weak ammonia. The piece of metal thus covered is exposed to a certain degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this method its colour is further improved and brought nearer to that of gold, probably by removing any particles of copper that may have been on the gilt surface. This process, when skilfully carried out, produces gilding of great solidity and beauty; but owing to the exposure of the workmen to mercurial fumes, it is very unhealthy, and further there is much loss of mercury. Numerous contrivances have been introduced to obviate these serious evils; and the gilding fur. nace invented by M. D'Arcet is so arranged that the whole of the mercurial fumes are caught and recondensed for further use. Gilt brass buttons used for uniforms are gilt by this process, and there is an Act of Parliament yet unrepealed which prescribes 5 grains of gold as the smallest quantity that may be used for the gilding of 12

wax.

dozen of buttons 1 inch in diameter.

Electro-gilding, which has numerous and important applications, is described under ELECTRO-METALLURGY.

Gilding of Pottery and Porcelain.- The quantity of gold consumed for these purposes is very large. The gold used is dissolved in aquaregia, and the acid is driven off by heat, or the gold may be precipitated by means of sulphate of iron. In this pulverulent state the gold is mixed with th of its weight of oxide of bismuth, together with a small quantity of borax and gum water. The mixture is applied to the articles with a camel's hair pencil, and after passing through the fire the gold is of a dingy colour, but the lustre is brought out by burnishing-with agate and bloodstone, and afterwards cleaning with vinegar or white-lead.

GILEAD (?, ie., "hard" or "rugged") is sometimes used, both in earlier and in later writers, to denote the whole of the territory occupied by the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending from the Arnon to the southern base of Hermon (Deut. xxxiv. 1; Judg. xx. 1; Jos., Ant. xii. 8. 3, 4). More precisely, however, it was the usual name of that mountainous district which is bounded on the N. by the Hieromax (Yarmuk), on the E. by the Jordan, on the S. by the Arnon, and on the W. by a line which may be said to

follow the meridian of Ammân (Philadelphia or RabbathAmmon). It thus lay wholly within 31° 25′ and 32° 42′ N. lat., and 35° 34′ and 36° E. long. Excluding the narrow strip of low-lying plain along the Jordan, it has an average elevation of 2500 feet above the Mediterranean; but, as seen from the west, the relative height is very much in creased by the depression of the Jordan valley. The range from the same point of view presents a singularly uniform outline, having the appearance of an unbroken wall; in reality, however, it is traversed by a number of deep ravines (wadys), of which the most important are the Yabis, the Ajlûn, the Rajib, the Zerka (Jabbok), the Hesban, and the Zerka Maîn. The great mass of the Gilead range is formed of Jura limestone, but there are also occasional veins of sandstone. The eastern slopes are comparatively bare of trees; but the western are well supplied with oak, terebinth, and pine. The pastures are everywhere luxuriant, and the wooded heights and winding glens, in which the tangled shrubbery is here and there broken up by open glades and flat meadows of green turf, exhibit a beauty of vegetation such as is hardly to be seen in any other district of Palestine.

The first mention of "Mount Gilead" in Scripture occurs in Gen. xxxi., where it is said that the place where Jacob's covenant with his father-in-law was ratified was thenceforward called "the hill of witness" (?). The locality contemplated by the sacred writer was doubtless somewhere on the ridge of what is now known as Jebel Ajlûn, and probably not far from Mahneh (Mahanaim), near the head of the wady Yâbis.1 Gilead next comes under notice in connexion with the partition of the promised land among the twelve tribes of Israel. At the period of the conquest the portion of Gilead northward of the Jabbok (Zerka) belonged to the dominions of Og, king of Bashan, while the southern half was ruled by Sihon, king of the Amorites, having been at an earlier date wrested from Moab (Numb. xxi. 24; Deut. iii. 12-16). These two sections were allotted respectively to Manasseh and to Reuben and Gad, both districts being peculiarly suited to the pastoral and nomadic character of these tribes. A somewhat wild Bedouin disposition, fostered by their surroundings, was retained by the Israelite inhabitants of Gilead to a late period of their history, and seems to be to some extent discernible in what we read alike of Jephthah, of David's Gadites, and of the prophet Elijah. After the close of the Old Testament history the word Gilead seldom occurs. It seems to have soon passed out of use as a precise geographical designation; for though occasionally mentioned by Apocryphal writers, by Josephus, and by Eusebius, the allusions are all vague, and show that those who made them had no definite knowledge of Gilead proper. In Josephus and the New Testament the name Peræa or épav Toû 'lopồávov is most frequently used; and the country is sometimes spoken of by Josephus as divided into small provinces called after the capitals in which Greek colonists had established themselves during the reign of the Seleucidæ. At present Gilead south of the Jabbok alone is known by the name of Jebel Jilad (Mount Gilead), the northern portion between the Jabbok and the Yarmuk being called Jebel Ajlûn. Jebel Jilad includes Jebel Osha, and has for its capital the town of Es-Salt. The cities of Gilead expressly mentioned in Scripture are Ramoth, Jabesh, and Jazer. The first of these has been satisfactorily identified with Es-Salt, and apparently ought not to be regarded as distinct from Mizpeh (Judg. xi. 11, 34), called also Mizpeh-Gilead (Judg. xi. 29), or Ramoth Mizpeh (Josh. xiii. 26).

GILES, ST (ÆGIDIUS, EGIDIO, GIL, or GILLES), according to the Breviarium Romanum (1st September) was an Athenian of royal descent, and from his earliest years distinguished for piety and charity. On the death of his parents he, while still young, distributed amongst the poor his entire patrimony, including his very tunic, which garment effected a miraculous cure upon the poor sick man to whom it had been given. Shrinking from the publicity involved in this and many other (apparently involuntary) miracles, he betook himself to Provence, where, after a residence of two years with St Cæsarius at Arles, he withdrew into the solitude of the neighbouring desert, living upon herbs and the milk of a hind which came to his cell at stated hours. Here he was discovered after some time by the king of France, who on a hunting expedition had tracked the hind to the hermit's cave. With the reluctant consent of Ægidius, a monastery was now built on the spot, he being appointed its first abbot. The functions of this office he discharged with prudence and piety until his death, which occurred some years afterwards.

Some uncertainty attaches to the date, as well as to several other circumstances stated in this narrative. It is known that a certain Ægidius, whose name at least ('Aiyidios, from aig or aiyís) is suggestive of a Greek origin, held an abbacy in Provence in the 6th century, and, at the instance of Bishop Cæsarius, undertook, in 514, a mission to Pope Symmachus on a question relating to certain rivalries between the sees of Arles and Vienne (Labbe, Conc., v. 439-40, ed. 1728); but the modern hagiologists, following the earliest Acta, which assign the legend to the period of a Catholic Visigothic king "Flavius" (Wamba or Ervigius), incline to distinguish the saint from the earlier abbot of the same name, and to fix the date of the former about the end of the 7th century. Of the existence of an abbey under the advocacy of St Giles towards the end of the 9th century there can be no question (Ménard, Hist. de Nismes); while Benjamin of Tudela makes special mention of the crowds of foreigners from all countries who in his time (1160) frequented that shrine, which is situated on the Petit-Rhône, about 12 miles westward of Arles. In the 11th and following centuries the cultus of the saint, who came to be regarded as the special patron of lepers, beggars, and cripples, spread very extensively over Europe, especially in England, Scotland, France, Germany, and Poland. church of St Giles, Cripplegate, London, was built about 1090, while the hospital for lepers at St Giles-in-the-Fields was founded by Queen Matilda in 1117. In England alone there are 146 churches dedicated to this saint; and they occur in every county except in those of Westmoreland and Cumberland (Parker, Calendar of the Anglican Church). In Edinburgh the church of St Giles (c. 1359) could boast the possession of an arm-bone of its patron. Representations of St Giles are very frequently met with in early French and German art, but are much less common in Italy and Spain (Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art, pp. 768-770).

The

GILFİLLAN, George (1813–1878), a clergyman of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and a well-known popular writer, was born 30th January 1813 at Comrie, Perthshire, where his father, the Rev. Samuel Gilfillan, also a man of some literary activity, was for many years minister of a Secession congregation. At Glasgow University and the theological hall, as at Comrie school, he took small help from formal lessons, and cared little for a high place in his classes or for proficiency in his prescribed studies, but applied himself to English literature, with a passion for reading, and a memory which held fast and arranged the contents of all the congenial books he met with. In March 1836 he was ordained pastor of a Secession congregation in Dundee. His first effort beyond the pulpit was in 1839, when he issued

Five Discourses, which, though neglected by the reading public, had many high merits, and gave the promise of more and of higher. Some time afterwards he rather unadvisedly published a sermon on "Hades," which, distinguished by bold but ill-sustained speculation, and by brilliant but irregular imagination, brought him under the scrutiny of his co-presbyters, and was ultimately withdrawn from circulation. Gilfillan next contributed a series of sketches of celebrated literary men to the Dumfries Herald, then edited by Thomas Aird; and these, along with several new ones formed his first Gallery of Literary Portraits, a volume which appeared in 1846, and had a wide circulation. It was quickly followed by a Second and a Third Gallery, until almost all our great men were delineated. In 1851 the Bards of the Bible appeared; and this has been his most successful work. His aim was that it should be "a poem on the Bible"; and it was far more rhapsodical than critical Still the little criticism that was scattered through out it was more than enough to keep it from soaring into poetry; and the poetry, when pure, was so fragmentary, that instead of making one poem, it consisted of many small pieces, though in these there were grand strokes and exquisite touches of description. His sketching powers were next exercised upon the "Scottish Covenanters," and some of the heroes and episodes of the struggle received a glowing commemoration. At a later date he published similar representations of English Puritans and of Scotch Secedors, as champions of the rights of conscience. The most extensive publication with which Gilfillan was connected was Nichol's edition of the British Poets; and his office was not only to secure the utmost accuracy in the text of each poet's works, but also to furnish both a biography and a critical estimate. This engagement, taking him again and leisurely through the studies in which he had most delighted, and with which he had been most conversant, stimulated him to finish the work on which he had resolved in youth, and to which he had long given the brightest moods of his most genial hours. Night, a Poem, came out in 1867, when he was fifty-four years of age; but the work which had received his labour and his polishing during his best thirty years was far less successful than his most ephemeral productions. It was, indeed, an absolute failure. The theme was vast, vague, and unmanageable, even though the poem had extended to ninety, instead of nine books. Then, though his nature was largely and essentially poetic, Gilfillan had never given himself a training or even any practice in verse. Besides he had already, in his many prose volumes, made use of all his poetic ideas and illustrations. There was not a line in Night that had not often sounded forth in his essays with stronger and finer melody. It was but a faint echo, and it had no music. His History of a Man, partly autobiographic and largely fabulous, was not written with his usual candour and geniality. Not less abundant and striking than his literature was his oratory; and wherever he appeared as a preacher, or as a lecturer on some literary or secular theme, he drew large crowds that were invariably thrilled by his eloquence. There was no token either of physical or of mental exhaustion when he died suddenly of heart disease, in the summer of 1878. He had just finished a new life of Burns designed to accompany a new edition of the works of that poet.

GILGAL. Three towns of this name are mentioned in the Bible. (1.) The first and most important was situated "in the east border of Jericho" (Joshua iv. 19), on the border between Judah and Benjamin (Joshua xv. 7). Josephus places it 50 stadia from Jordan and 10 from Jericho (Antiq., v. 1, 4), but these measurements do not agree with the position of Jericho with respect to Jordan. Jerome (Onomasticon, s.v. Galgal) places Gilgal 2 Roman miles from Jericho, and speaks of it as a deserted place held in wonderful venera

tion ("miro cultu ") by the natives. This site, which in the Middle Ages appears to have been lost,-Gilgal being shown further north, has lately been recovered by a German traveller (Schokke), and fixed by the English survey party. It is about 2 miles east of the site of Byzantine Jericho, and 1 mile from the modern Erîha. A fine tamarisk, traces of a church (which is mentioned in the 8th century), and a large reservoir, now filled up with mud, remain. The place is called Jiljûlieh, and its position north of the valley of Achor (Wady Kelt) and east of Jericho agrees well with the Biblical indications above mentioned. A tradition connected with the fall of Jericho is attached to the site (see Tent Work in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 7). (2.) The second Gilgal, mentioned in Joshua xii. 23 in connexion with Dor, appears to have been situated in the maritime plain. Jerome (Onomasticon, s. v. Gelgel) speaks of a town of the name 6 Roman miles north of Antipatris (Râs el 'Ain). This is apparently the modern Kalkilia (vulgarly Galgilia), but about 3 miles north of Antipatris is a large village called Jiljulieh, which is more probably the Biblical town. (3.) The third Gilgal (2 Kings iv. 38) was in the mountains (compare 2 Kings ii. 1-3) near Bethel. Jerome mentions this place also (Onomasticon, s. v. Galgala). It appears to be the present village of Jiljilia, about 7 English miles north of Beitîn (Bethel).

GILGIT (Ghilghit, &c.), properly a secluded valleystate on a tributary of the Upper Indus, but also applied to the tributary river and the whole of its basin, which is one of great interest in many respects, though as yet but imperfectly known. Captain J. Biddulph has for some time past been employed in Gilgit on the part of the Government of India, but no pårt of the information communicated by him has yet been made available. We shall describe the whole basin so far as materials allow.

on

About 10 miles below the elbow formed by the Indus (74° 42′ long., 35° 50′ lat.) in suddenly changing its course from a general direction north-west to a general direction south-west, in the vicinity of some of the highest mountains and vastest glaciers in the world, the Gilgit river enters it on the right bank, and with a general direction from the north-west. Thus the axis of the Gilgit valley is in fact a prolongation of that of the Indus valley in the direction maintained by the latter for some 300 miles above the elbow just mentioned. The length of the basin, so far as we know, a line nearly west to east, is 120 miles; and its greatest width from north to south is about 75. The south limit of the basin is formed by the lofty watershed which divides the west-to-east Gilgit basin from the meridional basins of the (Lower) Indus, the Swat, and the Panjkora. At its intersection with the Indus-Swat watershed this limit rises to a peak of 19,400 feet, and at its intersection with the Panjkora-Chitral watershed to peaks of 18,490 and 19,440 feet. The western limit of the basin is the lofty watershed dividing it from the Mastúj valley on the upper waters of the Chitral river. This limit runs from the intersection last mentioned north-north-east and then north-east, till it joins the great mountain node in which the ranges of Hindu-Kush and the Muztagh (or Karakoram), according to our usual nomenclature, coalesce on the margin of the Pamir plateau. The northern limit of the basin is formed by the Muztagh itself, with peaks of 23,330 feet, 22,740 feet, 22,590 feet, 25,370 feet, 25,050 feet, and the basin is closed on the east by an offshoot of the Muztagh which, over the Indus elbow, forms that other great congeries of peaks and glaciers, of which the culminating point (Rákipúshi) rises to 25,550 feet, whilst seven others exceed 19,000 feet. South of the gorge through which the Gilgit waters force their way to the Indus this eastern barrier continues with summits rising to 14,000 and 15,000 feet, and joins the southern limit already described. This last-mentioned

part of the barrier is known as the Niludar Hills, and has to be passed by the traveller who enters Gilgit from Kashmir, .e., from India. The remotest source of the Gilgit waters is in a lake called Shundar, close above Mastúj, and by which one of the chief passes leads from Gilgit and Yassin to Mastuj and Chitral. The Ghizar river runs out of this, and, after a course of 60 miles, is joined by the river of Yassin, coming from the north. These two may be considered to form the Gilgit river. The Yassin river itself is formed by two streams joining 6 or 8 miles above the village of Yassin, by each of which leads a pass. From the north-west comes the Tui or Moshabbar stream, by which lies the Moshabbar pass, probably at least 16,000 feet in height, and traversing a deep crevassed glacier for 8 miles. From where the road reaches the upper stream of Mastúj one path leads down the latter to Mastúj, and another up-stream, crossing by the Baroghil pass (12,000 feet), over the prolongation of Hindu-Kush watershed, into Wakhán and the basin of the Upper Oxus. By the other stream, called the Warchagam river, coming from the north, a path leads over the Darkot pass to the very source of the Mastúj Another imriver, and so also to the Baroghil pass. portant stream, the Karambar, joins the Gilgit river from the north, about 21 miles below the confluence of the Ghizar

this lofty district; but the route surveys show about thirty. The height of the chief place, Yassin, is 7770 feet. The country was visited twice in 1870 by a very gallant but not prudent traveller, Mr George Hayward, and on the second visit in July of that year he was murdered by the agents of the chief Mir Wali, whilst on his way to the Darkot pass, in hope of penetrating to Wakhán and the exploration of Paniir. It is believed that Yassin has recently been annexed by the troops of Kashmir.

2. Next below Yassin is the small state of Puniál or Punyd, long held by separate rajas, and held by them now in dependence on Kashmir. It occupies the narrow valley of the river for a length of 25 miles, and contains nine villages, varying in height from 7000 feet down to 5500 feet. The villages are all within little forts, so that (as in Khorasan, and in Marco Polo's narrative) villages and forts are synonymous. At evening, the people who have been occupied in their fields come within the wall, and the gates are closed. Sentries guard the towers all night, and at dawn an armed patrol goes forth and makes the round of all places that might harbour an enemy, before the people issue to their avocations. In this part of the valley there are frequent mauvais pas on the road, where passage is difficult, and where a few men might stop a host. These are called by the old Persian name of darband (porta clausa), like the famous Iron Gate on the Caspian. The upper village of Puniál, called Gákúj, was till recently the furthest point to which the power of Kashmir, and therefore the influence of the British Government, extended. It stands 6940 feet above Between Gákúj and Yassin the road passes through a natural gate of rock. The ruler of Puniál is, or was in 1873, Raja Isa Bágdur, an old man who, in his little kingdom of nine villages, displayed some of the best characteristics of a king, feared by his enemies, liked and implicitly obeyed by his people. On meeting him they go up and kiss his hand.

the sea.

Gilgit occupies the remainder of the main valley down to the Indus, but we shall first speak of Hunza and Nagar, lying in the eastmost part of the basin, on the Nagar river.

3 and 4. Nayar lies on the left bank of the river, Hunza opposite, and the two "capitals," so to call them, lie just over against one another. They are distinct states under distinct princes, and their people of distinct Mussulman sects. Whilst Nagar sends a small complimentary tribute to the maharaja of Kashmir, Hunza (also called Kanjúd), a more warlike country, has often been at active enmity with him, coming down upon his villages in Gilgit, sweeping off the inhabitants, and selling them into slavery. Though the people of both states seem to speak the same language, Dr Leitner says the Nagar people are shorter, stouter, and fairer than the Hunza folk, whom he calls "tall skeletons" and desperate robbers. He says he met a man of Nagar whose yellow moustache and general appearance made him believe almost that he had seen a Russian. The Kanjudis are the terror of the Kirghiz on the upper waters of the Yarkand, and of the traders from Ladák to that territory.

5. Gilgit occupies all the lower part of the main valley to the Indus. If we take the whole length of the river, from the source in the Shundar lake to the Indus, at 135 miles (which, like the other distances bere, is taken with a 5-mile opening of the com. pass, omitting minor windings), Yassin will occupy 75 miles of this, Puniál 25, and Gilgit 35. The lower part of Gilgit is a valley from 1 to 3 miles wide, bounded on each side by steep rocky mountains. The valley contains stony alluvial plateaus of various forms and at various levels above the river, which flows between cliffs worn in these. The greater part of this space is barren, but as usual in those high regions there is in front of each lateral ravine a cultivated space watered by the tributary stream, and on that a collection of houses. The village of Gilgit is 4800 feet above the sea, and stands on a flat plain of the river alluvium, forming a The cultivation here covers terrace 30 or 40 feet above the water.

a square mile or thereabouts, irrigated from the nearest lateral stream. The houses are flat-roofed, scattered over the plain in twos and threes, among groups of fruit-trees. The destruction was great in the wars to which Gilgit has been subject in the last halfcentury, and it will take long before the village recovers the

former abundance of fruit-trees. The fort of Gilgit is the chief stronghold of the maharaja of Kashmir in Dardistán.

There is very little snow-fall at Gilgit. The vegetable products are wheat, barley, naked barley, rice (at Gilgit village only), maize, millet, buckwheat, various pulses, rape, and cotton; and of fruits, mulberries, peaches, apricots, grapes, apples, quinces, pears, greengages, figs (poor), walnuts, pomegranates, and elaeagnus, besides musk and watermelons. Silk is grown in very small quantity. There are three fabrics from it,-one half-wool, much worn by those above the common peasant, one half-cotton, and the third all silk, strong though loosely woven, and prized for girdles. Gold is washed from the river-gravels as in many other