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to Ireland, and commanded a body of Dutch cavalry at the
battle of the Boyne. On the king's return to England
General Ginckell was entrusted with the conduct of the
war. He took the field in the spring of 1691, and estab-
lished his headquarters at Mullingar. Among those who
held a command under him was the marquis of Ruvigny,
the recognized chief of the Huguenot refugees. Early in
June Ginckell took the fortress of Ballymore, capturing the
whole garrison of 1000 men. The English lost only 8 men.
After reconstructing the fortifications of Ballymore, the
army marched to Athlone, then one of the most important
of the fortified towns of Ireland. The Irish defenders of
the place were commanded by a distinguished French
general, Saint-Ruth. The firing began on June 19th, and
on the 30th the town was stormed, the Irish army retreat-
ing towards Galway, and taking up their position at Aghrim.
Having strengthened the fortifications of Athlone and left
a garrison there, Ginckell led the English, on July 12th,
to Aghrim. An immediate attack was resolved on, and,
after a severe and at one time doubtful contest, the crisis
was precipitated by the fall of Saint-Ruth, and the dis-
organized Irish were defeated and fled. A horrible
slaughter of the Irish followed the struggle, and 4000
corpses were left unburied on the field, besides a multitude
of others that lay along the line of the 'retreat. Galway
next capitulated, its garrison being permitted to retire to
Limerick. There the viceroy, Tyrconnel, was in command
of a large force, but his sudden death early in August left
the command in the hands of General Sarsfield and the
Frenchman D'Usson. The English army came in sight of
the town on the day of Tyrconnel's death, and the bombard-
ment was immediately begun. Ginckell, by a bold device,
crossed the Shannon and captured the camp of the Irish
cavalry. A few days later he stormed the fort on Thomond
Bridge, and after difficult negotiations a capitulation was
signed, the terms of which were divided into a civil and a
military treaty. Thus was completed the conquest or
pacification of Ireland, and the services of the Dutch
general were amply recognized and rewarded. He received
the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and was
created by the king first earl of Athlone and baron of
Aghrim. The immense forfeited estates of the earl of
Limerick were given to him, but the grant was a few years
later revoked by the English parliament. The earl con-
tinued to serve in the English army, and accompanied the
king to the Continent in 1693. He fought at Landen, and
assisted in destroying the French magazine at Givet. In
1702 he took command of the Dutch serving under the
duke of Marlborough. He died at Utrecht, February 10,
1705. On the death of the ninth earl without issue in 1844,
the title became extinct.

GINGER (French, Gingembre; German, Ingwer), the rhizome or underground stem of Zingiber officinale, Roscoe, a perennial reed-like plant growing from 3 to 4 feet high. The flowers and leaves are borne on separate stems, those of the former being shorter than those of the latter, and averaging from 6 to 12 inches. The flowers themselves are borne at the apex of the stems in dense ovate oblong conelike spikes from 2 to 3 inches long, composed of obtuse strongly-imbricated bracts with membranous margins, each bract enclosing a single small sessile flower. The leaves are both ends, with very short petioles. The plant, though unknown in a wild state, is considered with very good reason to be a native of the warmer parts of Asia, over which it has been cultivated from an early period, and the rhizome imported into England. From Asia the plant has spread into the West Indies, South America, western tropical Africa, and The use of ginger as a spice has been known from very

Australia.

early times; it was supposed by the Greeks and Romans to be a product of southern Arabia, and was received by them by way of the Red Sea; in India it has also been known from a very remote period, the Greek and Latin names being derived from the Sanskrit. Flückiger and Hanbury, in their Pharmacographia, give the following notes on the history of ginger. On the authority of Vincent's Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients, it is stated that in the list of imports from the Red Sea into Alexandria, which in the second century of our era were there liable to the Roman fiscal duty, ginger occurs among other Indian spices. So frequent is the mention of ginger in similar lists during the Middle Ages, that it evidently constituted an important item in the commerce between Europe and the East. It thus appears in the tariff of duties levied at Acre in Palestine about 1173, in that of Barcelona in 1221, Marseilles in 1228, and Paris in 1296. Ginger seems to have been well known in England even before the Norman Conquest, being often referred to in the Anglo-Saxon leech-books of the 11th century. It was very common in the 13th and 14th centuries, ranking next in value to pepper, which was then the commonest of all spices, and costing on an average about 1s. 7d. per Ib. Three kinds of ginger were known among the merchants of Italy about the middle of the 14th century:-(1) Belledi or Baladi, an Arabic name, which, as applied to ginger, would signify country or wild, and denotes common ginger; (2) Colombino, which refers to Columbum, Kolam, or Quilon, a port in Travancore, frequently mentioned in the Middle Ages; and (3) Micchino, a name which denoted that the spice had been brought from or by way of Mecca. Marco Polo seems to have seen the ginger plant both in India and China between 1280 and 1290. John of Montecorvino, a missionary friar who visited India about 1292, gives a description of the plant, and refers to the fact of the root being dug up and transported. Nicolo di Conto, a Venetian merchant in the early part of the 15th century, also describes the plant and the collection of the root, as seen by him in India. Though the Venetians received ginger by way of Egypt, some of the superior kinds were taken from India overland by the Black Sea. The spice is said to have been introduced into America by Francisco de Mendoça, who took it from the East Indies to New Spain. It seems to have been shipped for commercial purposes from San Domingo as early as 1585, and from Barbados in 1654; so early as 1547 considerable quantities were sent from the West Indies to Spain.

are called

In

Ginger is known in commerce in two distinct forms, termed respectively coated and uncoated ginger, as having or wanting the epidermis. For the first, the pieces, which "races" or "hands," from their irregular palmate form, are washed and simply dried in the sun. this form ginger presents a brown, more or less irregularly wrinkled or striated surface, and when broken shows a dark brownish fracture, hard, and sometimes horny and resinous. To produce uncoated ginger the rhizomes are washed, scraped, and sun-dried, and are often subjected to a system of bleaching, either from the fumes of burning sulphur or by immersion for a short time in a solution of chlorinated lime. The whitewashed appearance that much of the ginger has, as seen in the shops, is due to the fact of its being washed in whiting and water, or even coated with sulphate of lime. This artificial coating is supposed by some to give the ginger a better appearance; it often, however, covers an inferior quality, and can readily be detected by the ease with which it rubs off, or by its leaving a white powdery substance at the bottom of the jar in which it is contained. Uncoated ginger, as seen in trade, varies from single joints an inch or less in length to flattish irregularly branched pieces of several joints, the "races" or "hands," and from

3 to 4 inches long each branch has a depression at its

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summit showing the former attachment of a leafy stem. The colour, when not whitewashed, is a pale buff; it is somewhat rough or fibrous, breaking with a short mealy fracture, and presenting on the surfaces of the broken parts numerous short bristly fibres.

The British market derives its supply of ginger from various parts of the world. The principal sorts, however, or those most commonly found in commerce, are Jamaica, Cochin, Bengal, and African, though each of these in its turn has its several varieties and qualities. The best or most valued kind of all is the Jamaica, and next to it the Cochin. For ordinary purposes uncoated ginger is considered the best; the largest and finest pieces, of a pale buff colour both outside and inside, and cutting softly and evenly, are considered the most valuable. The chief sources of supply are the East and West Indies, Sierra Leone, and Egypt.

sweetmeat.

The principal constituents of ginger are starch, volatile oil (to which the characteristic odour of the spice is due), and resin (to which is attributed its pungency). Its chief use is as a condiment or spice, but as an aromatic and stomachic medicine it is also used internally. "The stimulant, aromatic, and carminative properties render it of much value in atonic dyspepsia, especially if accompanied with much flatulence, and as an adjunct to purgative medicines to correct griping." Externally applied as a rubefacient, it has been found to relieve headache and toothache. The rhizomes, collected in a young green state, washed, scraped, and preserved in syrup, form a delicious preserve, which is largely exported both from the West Indies and from China. Cut up into pieces like lozenges, and preserved in sugar, ginger also forms a very agreeable (J. R. J.) GINGHAM is a woven cotton fabric, of a close stoutish texture, the distinguishing characteristics of which are that it is a plain (ie, untwilled) cloth, woven into yarn-dyed stripes or checks of two or more colours. In some cases as many as seven or eight colours are introduced in the warp and weft of a gingham; but no patterns are made that cannot be woven in a common plain loom. Gingham was originally an Indian product, but its manufacture was early introduced into the Lancashire and Glasgow districts; and during the first half of the present century the trade formed an important feature in the textile industries of the latter locality--the demand for the fabric coming chiefly from the United States and the West Indies. The trade distinction of gingham is now to a large extent superseded by other

terms.

GINGUENÉ, PIERRE LOUIS (1748-1815), the author of the Histoire littéraire d'Italie, was born on 25th April 1748 at Rennes in Brittany. He was educated at a Jesuit college in his native town, but he owed most of his literary tastes and accomplishments to his father, who early imbued him with a love of music and the languages of England and Italy. His first literary effort, a poetical piece entitled Confession de Zulmé, brought him into notice among the literary coteries of Paris, from the circumstance that, when published at first anonymously, it was claimed by six or seven different authors. Though the value of the piece is not very great, it is Ginguené's poetical chef d'œuvre. The part he took as a defender of Piccini against the partisans of Gluck made him still more widely known; and the reputation he acquired as a promising political writer secured employment for him in the public service in 1780. He hailed, however, the first symptoms of the Revolution, joined Rabaut, St Etienne, and Cerutti in producing the Feuille Villageoise, and celebrated in an indifferent ode the opening of the states-general A more creditable effort was his Lettres sur les Confessions de J. J. Rousseau, 1791, in which he defended to the uttermost the life and principles of his author. Refusing to countenance the excesses of the Revolution, he was thrown into prison, where he only escaped with life by the downfall of Robespierre. Some time after his liberation he assisted. as director-general of

the "commission exécutive de I'm trucion publique,” in reorganizing the system of public instruction. When the Institute was established in 1796, he was elected a member of the division called the academy of moral and political sciences. In 1798 the directory appointed him minister plenipotentiary to the king of Sardinia, whose ruin, begun by force of arms, they had determined to complete by treachery. A less promising tool could not have been found for carrying out their design. After fulfilling his duties for seven months, very little to the satisfaction of his employers, Ginguené retired to his country house of St Prix, in the valley of Montmorency, and there he prosecuted his literary labours till the Revolution of the 18th Brumaire called him once more before the world. He was appointed a member of the tribunate, which made a show of maintaining democratic opposition to the first consul; but Napoleon, finding that he was not sufficiently tractable, had him expelled at the first "purge," and Ginguené once more joyfully returned to his favourite pursuits. These were now more than ever a necessity of life to him, as his only other source of income was the small endowment attached to his seat in the Institute. Fortunately he was nominated one of the commission charged to continue the literary history of France, which had been brought down by the Benedictines to about the close of the 12th century; and the three volumes of this series which appeared in 1814, 1817, and 1820 are for the most part the result of his labours. But the work by which Ginguené will be longest remembered is his Histoire littéraire d'Italie (9 vols. 8vo, 1811-1819), to which he was putting the finishing touches when he was cut off by a painful disease, November 16, 1815. The first six volumes appeared before their author's death; the seventh is entirely his except a few pages; and of the eighth and ninth be wrote about a half, the other half being composed by Salf, and revised by Daunou. The success of the history in Italy was astonishing: editions were published in various parts of the peninsula, with notes and comments by the best scholars, and thrce translations appeared respectively at Milan, Naples, and Venice.

Ginguené was originally led to make Italian literature his special study by finding how ill that subject was under stood, and how little it was appreciated, by his country men. In the composition of his history he was guided for the most part by the great work of the Jesuit Tiraboschi, but he avoids the prejudices and party views of his model His own style, though occasionally forcible and eloquent, is not unfrequently too tame for the subject, and he often tres passes on his reader's patience by over-niinuteness of detail; but these faults are more than atoned for by fine critical discernment, impartiality, and freedom. On the score of accuracy, indeed, Ginguené sometimes offends, but seldom in matters of great moment; and his slips are such as are almost inevitable to a foreigner, who could hardly be said to have even seen the country whose literary history he relates. The Italians felt grateful to him for having placed their literature in its proper light, and readily forgave the excessive eulogies which he passed on many of their writers, whose very nanics had been forgotten in their own country.

During the latter years of his life Ginguené wrote extensively for the press, and he edited the Decade philosophique, politique, et lilteraire, till it was suppressed by Napoleon in 1807. He contributed largely to the Biographic universelle, the Mercure de France, and the Encyclopédie méthodique; and he edited the works of Chamfort ponin ou le Tuteur mystifié, 1777; La Satire des Satires, 1778; De and of Lebrun. Among his minor productions are an opera, Poml'autorité de Rabelais dans la révolution présente, 1791; De M. Neckar, 1795; Fables inédites, 1814. See Éloge de Ginguené," M. Daunou, prefixed to the 2d edit. of the Hist. litt. d'Italie; by Dacier, in the Mémoires de l'Institut, tom. vii.; "Discours" by D. J. Garat, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de P. L. Guingené, Paris 1817

GINSENG, the 100t of a species of Panax (P. Ginseng, | Meyer), belonging to the natural order Araliaceæ, is a very alebrated Chinese medicine. The demand is so great that many other roots are substituted for it, notably that of Punax quinquefolium, Linn., distinguished as American ginseng, and imported from the United States. At one time the ginseng obtained from Manchuria was considered to be the finest quality, and in consequence became so scarce that an imperial edict was issued prohibiting its collection. That prepared iu Corea is now the most esteemed variety. The root of the wild plant is preferred to that of cultivated ginseng, and the older the plant the better is the quality of the root considered to be. Lockhart states that all the ginseng collected in the Chinese empire is imperial property, an is sold to those who have the privilege of dealing in it at its weight in gold. Great care istaken in the preparation of the drug. The account given by Kempfer of the preparation of nindsin, the root of Sium miasi, Thunb., in the Corea, will give a good idea of the preparation of ginseng, uiusi being a similar drug of supposed weaker virtue, obtained from a different plant, and often confounded with ginseng. "In the beginning of winter nearly all the population of Sjansai turn out to collect the root, and make preparations for sleeping in the fields. The root, when collected, is macerated for three days in fresh water, or water in which rice has been boiled twice; it is then suspended in a closed vessel over the fire, and afterwards dried, until from the base to the middle it assumes a hard, resinous, and translucent appearance, which is considered a proof of its good quality."

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Ginseng of good quality generally occurs in hard, rather brittle, translucent pieces, about the size of the little finger, and varying in length from 2 to 4 inches. The taste is mucilaginous, sweetish, and slightly bitter and aromatic. The root is frequently forked, and it is probably owing to tais circumstance that medicinal properties were in the first place attributed to it, its resemblance to the body of a man being supposed to indicate that it could restore virile power to the aged and impotent. In price it varies from or 12 dollars to the enormous sum of 300 or 400 dollars an ounce. Root of this quality can of course only be purchased by the most wealthy, and the greatest care is taken of such pieces by the vendors.

Lockhart gives a graphic description of a visit to a ginseng merchant. Opening the outer box, the merchant removed several paper arcels which appeared to fill the box, but under then was a second box, or perhaps two small boxes, which, when taken out, showed the bottom of the large box and all the intervening space filled with more paper parcels. These parcels, he said, "contained quicklime, for the purpose of absorbing any moisture and keeping the boxes quite dry, the lime being picked in paper for the sake of cleanliness. Tho smaller box, which held the ginseng, was lined with sheet-lead; the ginseng further enclosed in silk wrappers was kept in little silken-covered boxes. Taking up a piece, he would request his visitor not to breathe upon it, nor handle it; he would dilate pon the many merits of the drug and the cures it had effected. The cover of the root, according to its quality, was silk, either embroidered or plain, cotton cloth, or paper." In China the ginseng is often sent to friends as a valuable present; in such cases, accompanying the medicine is usually given a small, beautifully: fished double kettle, in which the ginseng is prepared as follows. The inner kettle is made of silver, and between this and the outside Vessel, which is a copper, jacket, is a small space for holding water. The silver kettle, which fits on a ring near the top of the outer covering, has a cup-like cover in which rice is placed with a little water; the ginseng is put in the inner vessel with water, a cover is placed over the whole, and the apparatus is put on the fire. When the rice in the cover is sufficiently and is then-eaten by the patient, ly cooked, the medicine is ready, the use me. The dose of the root is from 60 to 90 grains. During the use of the drug tea-drinking is forbidden for a rains. Durin, but no other change is made in the diet. It is taken in the morning it is taken in the evening before going to bed. before breakfast, from three to eight days together, and sometimes At one time it was proposed by some Russians to establish ginseng plantations, with the view of growing the root as an important

article of trade with China. Ginseng is also cultivated in Japan, having been introduced from Corea; but, although it grows more be much less active. luxuriantly there than in its native country, the root is considered to This may be due to the fact that, while in the mountains of Corea the root is perennial, in Japan the plant runs to seed the first year, and becomes annual. Europeans have hitherto failed to discover any remarkable properties in the drug. Dr Porter Smith, however, mentions having seen some cases in which life appeared to be prolonged for a time by its use; and M. Maack states that one of the Cossacks of his party, having chopped off a finger accidentally with an axe, applied ointment made from ginseng, and the wound healed rapidly. Its properties, which may be likened to measure upon the faith of the patient. those of the mandrake of Scripture, are perhaps dependent in great

See Porter Smith, Chinese Materia Medica, p. 103; Reports on Trade at the Treaty Ports of China, 1868, p. 63; Lockhart, Med. Missionary in China, 2d ed., p. 107; Bull. de la Société Imperiale de Nat. de Moscow, 1865, No. 1, pp. 70-76; Pharmaceutical Journal, (2), vol. iii. pp. 197, 333, (2), vol. ix. p. 77; Lewis, Materia Medica, p. 324; Journal of Botany, 1864, p. 320; Geoffroy, Tract. de Materie Medicale, t. ii. p. 112; Loureiro, Flora Cochinchinensis,

p. 656; Kæmpfer, Amanilutes Exotica, p. 824.

GIOBERTI, VINCENZO (1801-1852) the ablest philo. sophical writer of modern Italy, and one of the most inte resting actors in the recent history of the country, was born in Turin on the 5th April 1801, the only child of parents in moderate circumstances there, and was educated by the fathers of the Oratory with a view to the priesthood, to which he was ordained in 1825. His study of the ancient philosophers, and the fathers and doctors of the church, occupied him for years, during which he led a very retired life; gradually, however, he took more and more interest in the affairs of his country, as well as in the literature of the day, entering warmly into the new ideas then beginning to be discussed in connexion with politics. The freedom of Italy from foreign masters became his ruling motive in life, and this freedom in his conception of it was an emancipation, not only from armed masters, but from modes of thought alien to its genius, and detrimental to its European authority. This authority was in his mind connected with papal supremacy, though in a way quite novelintellectual rather than political. One must remember this in considering nearly all his writings, and also in estimating his position, both in relation to the ruling clerical partythe Jesuits-and also in relation to the politics of the court of Piedmont after the accession of Charles Albert in 1831. He was now noticed by the king and made one of his chaplains. His popularity and private influence, however, were reasons enough for the court party to mark him for exile; he was not one of them, and could not be depended on.

Knowing this, he in 1833 asked permission to resign his chaplaincy, but was suddenly arrested while walking with a friend in the public gardens, and, after an imprisonment of four months, sent out of the country in This was done without trial or process-simply, it would the escort of a carabineer, under decree of banishment. appear, by private influence of the clerical party, his name being at the same time struck off the list of theological ruined plans Gioberti arrived in Paris in the beginning of doctors of the college of Turin. With broken fortunes and October 1833. A year later he went to Brussels, where he spent the best period of his life from that time to 1845, teaching philosophy, and assisting in the work of a college superintended by his friend Gaggia, yet finding time, by rising early and sitting late, to write many works of great importance in philosophical inquiry, but bearing a special relation to his country and its position. His spirits never returned to him, however, as his whole being was bound up with the welfare of his native country... An amnesty having been passed by Charles Albert in 1846, Gioberti had liberty to return to Italy, just as Pius IX. in the beginning of his pontificate manifested strongly liberal sympathies. Gioberti took no step, however, till the end of 1847, and did not return to his native land till after

volumes, and by his Rinnovamento civile d'Italia, that caused
Gioberti to be welcomed with such enthusiasm on his return to
his native country. All these works were perfectly orthodox, and
aided in drawing the liberal clergy into the movement which has
resulted since his time in the unification of Italy. The Jesuits, how-
ever, closed round the pope more firmly after his return to Rome,
and in the end Gioberti's writings were placed on the Index,
although with no unfavourable result as far as their influence is
concerned. The remainder of his works need not be particularized,
although they give his mature views on many points, especially
La Filosofia della Rivelazione and the Protologia. The entire
writings of Gioberti, including those left in manuscript, have been
carefully edited by Giuseppe Massari in thirty-six volumes..
See Massari, Ricordi Biografici e Carteggio (Naples, 1863);
Lettere di Vincenzo Gioberti e Giorgio Pallavicino (Milan, 1875);
Rev. C. B. Smyth, Christian Metaphysics (London, 1851).

certain negotiations, and the public expression of popular | heightened by other occasional political articles which fill two enthusiasm in his favour. On his entrance into Turin, 29th April 1848, there was a general ouburst of this enthusiasm, mainly caused, it appears, by his unjust banishment and by the large circulation of his books, especially the Gesuita Moderno. The city was illuminated; deputations waited upon him; the king made him senator, but, having been returned both by Turin and by Genoa as deputy to the assembly of representatives, now first meeting under the new constitution, he elected to sit in the lower chamber, for his native town. Previous to the opening he made a tour in various provinces, beginning at Milan and including Rome, where he had three interviews with the liberal pope, who at that moment seemed to be the representative of his ideal imagined in the work Del Primato morale e civile, which Pius had read and admired. While he was engaged in this tour, constantly addressing the people publicly, the chamber met and elected him president. In the same parliament sat Azeglio, Cavour, and other liberals, and Balbo was prime minister. At the close of the same eventful year, a new ministry was formed, headed by Gioberti; but with the accession of Victor Emmanuel in March 1849 his active life came to an end. For a short time indeed he held a seat in the cabinet, though without a portfolio; but an irreconcilable disagreement soon followed, and his removal from Turiu was accomplished by his appointment on a mission to Paris, whence he never returned. There, refusing the pension which had been offered him and all ecclesiastical preferment, he lived frugally, and spent his days and nights as at Brussels in literary labour. Many other exiles gathered about him, and the Marquis Pallavicino became his bosom friend. He died suddenly, of apoplexy, on the 26th October 1852.

Gioberti's writings are more important than his political career. In the general history of European philosophy they stand apart. As the speculations of Rosmini, against which he wrote, have been called the last link added to medieval thought, so the system of Gioberti, more especially in his greater and earlier works, is unrelated to other modern schools of thought. It shows a harmony with the Roman Catholic faith which caused Cousin to make the superficial criticism that "Italian philosophy was still in the bonds of theology." Method is with him a synthetic, subjective, and psychological instrument. He reconstructs, as he declares, ontology, and begins with the "ideal formula," "the Ens creates ex nihilo the existent." He is in some respects a Platonist, and transplants certain dogmata from the ancient idealist. He identifies religion with civilization, and arrives in his treatise Del Primato morale e civile degli Italiani at the conclusion that the church is the axis on which the wellbeing of human life revolves. His later works, the Rinnovamento and the Protologia, are sometimes thought to be less affirmative in this matter, and there is a division in opinion among his critics how far he shifted his ground under the influence of events before he died. His first work, written when he was thirty-seven, had a personal reason for its existence. A young fellow-exile and friend, Paolo Pallia, having many doubts and misgivings as to the reality of revelation and a future life, Gioberti at once set to work with La Teorica del Sovrannaturale, which was his first publication (2 vols., 1838). After this the enormous labours of his pen made up for the lateness of his commencement as an author. Philosophical treatises in two or three volumes, which would occupy, generally speaking, half a lifetime, followed in rapid succession, each one being a corollary to the last. The Teorica was followed by Introduzione allo Studio della Filosofia in three volumes, passing through the press in 1839-40. In this work he states his reasons for requiring a new method and new terminology. Here he brings out the doctrine that religion is the direct expression of the idea in this life, and is one with true civilization in history. Civilization is a conditioned mediate tendency to perfection, to which religion is the final completion if carried out; it is the end of the second cycle expressed by the second formula, the Ens redeems existences. Essays on the lighter and more popular subjects, Del Bello and Del Buono, followed the Introduction, but were not published as a volume till 1846, having first appeared in connexion with the writings of other authors. Del Primato morale e civile degli Italiani and the Prolegomeni to the same, and soon afterwards his triumphant exposure of the Jesuits, Il Gesuita Moderno, in five successive volumes (eight volumes altogether), began to be issued in 1843, and no doubt

hastened the transfer of rule from clerical to civil hands.

It

War, as has been seen, the popularity of these semi-political works,

GIOJA, MELCHIOR (1767-1828), a distinguished Italian writer on philosophy and political economy, was born at Piacenza in 1767. He was educated at the celebrated college of St Lazare in his native town, and showed special fondness for the philosophical sciences. Apparently he had been destined for the church, but he seems to have given up at an early period the study of theology, and after completing his course at the college spent some years in retirement. His first work was the philosophical treatise Il nuovo Galateo (1802), which was followed by the Logica Statistica. The arrival of Napoleon in Italy drew Gioja into public life. He advocated warmly the establishment of a republican government, and under the Cisalpine Republic he was named historiographer and director of statistics. After the fall of Napoleon he retired into private life, and does not appear again to have held office. He died in 1828. Gioja's fundamental idea is the value of statistics or the collection of facts. Philosophy itself is with him classification and consideration of ideas. Logic he regarded as a practical art, and his Esercizioni Logici has the further title, Art of deriving benefit from ill-constructed books. In ethics Gioja follows Bentham, and his large treatise Del Merito e delle Recompense, 1818, is a clear and systematic view of social ethics from the utilitarian principle. In poliThe Nuovo Prospetto delle Scienze Economiche, 6 vols., tical economy this avidity for facts produced better fruits. 1815-17, although long to excess, and overburdened with classifications and tables, contains much valuable material. In particular, Gioja must be credited with the finest and most original treatment of division of labour since the Wealth of Nations. Much of what Babbage taught later on the subject of combined work is anticipated by Gioja. His theory of production is also deserving of attention from the fact that it takes into account and gives due prominence to immaterial goods. Throughout the work there is continuous opposition to Smith. Gioja's latest work Filosofia della Statistica, 1828, contains in brief compass the essence of his ideas on human life, and affords the clearest insight into his aim and method in philosophy both theoretical and practical.

A notice of Gioja's life is given in the 2d edition of the Filosofia della Statistica, 1829. See Ferri, Essai sur l'histoire de la Phil. en Italie au 19me Siècle, 1869.

GIORDANO, LUCA (1632-1705), a painter of great immediate celebrity, was born in Naples, son of a very indifferent painter, Antonio, who imparted to him the first rudiments of drawing. Nature predestined him for the art, and at the age of eight he painted a cherub into one of his father's pictures, a feat which was at once noised abroad, and which induced the viceroy of Naples to recommend the child to Spagnoletto. His father afterwards took him to Rome, to study under Pietro da Cortona. He acquired the nickname of Luca Fa-presto (Luke Work-fast). One might suppose this nickname to be derived merely from the almost miraculous celerity with which from an early age and throughout his life he handled the brush; but it is said to

have had a more express origin. The father, we are told, poverty-stricken and greedy of gain, was perpetually urging his boy to exertion with the phrase, "Luca, fà presto." The youth obeyed his parent to the letter, and would actually not so much as pause to snatch a hasty meal, but received into his mouth, while he still worked on, the food which his father's hand supplied. He copied nearly twenty times the Battle of Constantine by Julio Romano, and with proportionate frequency several of the great works of Raphael and Michelangelo. His rapidity, which belonged as much to invention as to mere handiwork, and his versatility, which enabled him to imitate other painters deceptively, earned for him two other epithets, “The Thunderbolt" (Fulmine), and "The Proteus," of Painting. He shortly visited all the main seats of the Italian school of art, and formed for himself a style combining in a certain measure the ornamental pomp of Paul Veronese and the contrasting compositions and large schemes of chiaroscuro of Pietro da Cortona. He was noted also for lively and showy colour. Returning to Naples, and accepting every sort of commission by which money was to be made, he practised his art with so much applause that Charles II. of Spain towards 1687 invited him over to Madrid, where he remained thirteen years. Giordano was very popular at the Spanish court, being a sprightly talker along with his other marvellously facile gifts, and the king created him a cavaliere. One anecdote of his rapidity of work is that the queen of Spain having one day made some inquiry about his wife, he at once showed Her Majesty what the lady was like by painting her portrait into the picture on which he was engaged. After the death of Charles in 1700 Giordano, gorged with wealth, returned to Naples. He spent large sums in acts of munificence, and was particularly liberal to his poorer brethren of the art. He again visited various parts of Italy, and died in Naples on 12th January 1705, his last words being "O Napoli, sospiro mio" (O Naples, my heart's love!). One of his maxims was that the good painter is the one whom the public like, and that the public are attracted more by colour than by design.

At the present day, whep the question is not how quickly Giordano could do his work, but what the work itself amounts to, his reputation has run down like the drops of heavy rain off a window, or like one of the figures in his own paintings, in which he was wont to use an excessive quantity of oil. His astonishing readiness and facility must, however, be recognized, spite of the general commonness and superficiality of his performances. He left many works in Rome, and far more in Naples. Of the latter one of the most renowned is Christ expelling the Traders from the Temple, in the church of the Padri Girolamini, a colossal work, full of expressive lazzaroni; also the frescos of S. Martino, and those in the Tesoro della Certosa, including the subject of Moses and the Brazen Serpent; and the cupola-paintings in the Church of S. Brigida, which contains the artist's own tomb. In Spain he executed a surprising number of works, continuing in the Escorial the series commenced by Cambiasi, and painting frescos of the Triumphs of the Church, the Genealogy and Life of the Madonna, the stories of Moses, Gideon, David, and Solomon, and the Celebrated Women of Scripture, all works of large dimensions. His pupils, Aniello Rossi and Matteo Pacelli, assisted him in Spain. In Madrid he worked more in oilcolour, a Nativity there being one of his best productions. Another superior example is the Judgment of Paris in the Berlin Museum. In Florence, in his closing days, he painted the Cappella Corsini, the Galleria Riccardi, and other works. In youth he etched with considerable skill some of his own paintings, such as the Slaughter of the Priests of Baal. He also painted much on the crystal borderings of looking-glasses, cabinets, &c., seen in many

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Italian palaces, and was, in this form of art, the master of Pietro Garofolo. His best pupil, in painting of the ordinary kind, was Paolo de Matteis. GIORGIONE (1477-1511), the name adopted both by his contemporaries and by posterity for one of the most renowned of Italian painters, signifies George the Big, or Great, and was given him, according to Vasari, "because of the gifts of his person and the greatness of his mind." Like Lionardo da Vinci, Giorgione appears to have been of illegitimate birth. His father belonged certainly to the gentle family of the Barbarella, of Castelfranco in the Trevisan; his mother, it seems probable, was a peasant girl of the neighbouring village of Vedelago; and he was born in or shortly before the year 1477. In histories and catalogues he is now commonly styled Giorgio Barbarella of Castelfranco; but it seems clear that he was humbly reared, and only acknowledged by his father's family when his gentas had made him famous. Twenty-seven years after his death, the brothers Matteo and Ercole Barbarella were glad to inscribe the name of Giorgione among the members of their family in whose honour they built and dedicated a monument in the church of San Liberale in their native town. Presently this church was demolished and replaced by a new one. In the course of this operation the inscription in question perished. Not so a more important memorial of Giorgione's greatness, in the shape of an altarpiece which he painted for the same church on the commission of Tuzio Costanzo. Tuzio Costanzo was a famous captain of free lances, who had followed his mistress, the Queen Cornaro from Cyprus to her retirement in the Trevisan, and at the beginning of the 16th century was settled at Castelfranco. The altar-piece with which Giorgione adorned the chapel of this patron in the old church of San Liberale, was afterwards transferred to the new church, where it remains to this day, so that there is something more than the mere memory of the great painter to attract the lover of art on a pilgrimage to his native town. Castelfranco is a hill fort standing in the midst of a rich and broken plain at some distance from the last slopes of the Venetian Alps. Giorgione's ideal of luxu riant pastoral scenery, the country of pleasant copses, glades, and brooks, amid which his personages love to wander or recline with lute and pipe, was derived, no doubt, from these natural surroundings of his childhood. We cannot tell how long he remained in their midst, nor what were the circumstances which led him, while still, it seems, a boy, to Venice. Once there, we do not hear of him until his genius is, so to speak, full-fledged. He appears all at once as a splendid presence, the observed of all observers; an impassioned musician, singer, lover; and, above all, as a painter winning new conquests for his art. His progress from obscurity to fame, probably under the teaching of Giovanni Bellini, must have been extraordinarily rapid, as he was still very young when he was employed to paint the portraits of two successive doges, and of great captains and princesses such as Gonzalvo of Cordova and Catharina Cornaro. Giorgione effected, in the Venetian school, a change analogous to that effected by Lionardo in the school of Florence,-a change, that is, which was less a revolution than a crowning of the edifice. He added the last accomplishments of freedom and science to an art that at his advent only just fell short of both. Venetian painting towards 1495 had reached the height of religious dignity in the great altar-pieces of Bellini, the height of romantic sentiment and picturesque animation in Carpaccio's series from the legend of St Ursula. The efforts of the school for nearly half a century had been concentrated on the development, with the help of the new medium of oil, of colour as the great element of emotional expression in painting. Giorgione came to enrich the art with a more faultless

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