design; with a system of colour yet more ardent, melting, and harmonious; with a stronger sense of life and of the glory of the real world as distinguished from the solemn dreamland of the religious imagination. He had a power hitherto unknown of interpreting both the charm of merely human grace and distinction, and the natural joy of life in the golden sunlight among woods and meadows. His active career cannot have extended over more than fifteen years, since we know that he died in 1511,-according to one account, of a contagious disorder; according to another, of grief at discovering that his mistress had played false with a pupil. But in that brief career he had both deeply modified the older manner of the Venetian school, as represented even by a master so great and so austere as John Bellini, and had prepared the way for its final manner, as represented by the most complete master of all, Titian. Bellini, who outlived Giorgione, had not been ashamed to learn something from the practice of a teacher fully forty years younger than himself, who was probably in the first instance his own pupil. Titian, only ten years younger than Giorgione, succeeded to his conquests, and enjoyed the length of days which was denied him. pictures of the master, and these, while they possess in Lemonnier; Ridolfi, Maraviglie dell' Arte, vol. i. p. 121; Crowe A consecutive biography of Giorgione it is impossible to construct, either from literary records or from extant works. The literary records only furnish us with a few general characteristics, and with the mention of a few of his productions, especially the frescos with which he adorned the front of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi or hall of the German traders at Venice, after its destruction by fire in 1504; and the frescos and altar-piece, sometimes attributed to the same year, which he executed for Tuzio Costanzo in his native town. The decorations of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, which Vasari praises for their design and glowing colour, but blames for their too fantastic and enigmatical invention, have unhappily been utterly destroyed by the combined operation of weather and of reckless architectural changes in the building. The frescos of the chapel of Castelfranco were also sacrificed, while the altar-piece was preserved in the manner we have related. A fragment of a love- GIOTTINO (1324-1357), an early Florentine painter. madrigal, which was once to be read on the back of this Vasari is the principal authority in regard to this artist; panel, addressed apparently by the painter to his model, is but it is not by any means easy to bring the details of his quoted as in character with our traditions of the man. The narrative into harmony with such facts as can be verified at picture itself represents the Virgin and Child enthroned, with the present day. It would appear that there was a painter a group of saints, and prominent among them the warrior- of the name of Tommaso (or Maso) di Stefano, termed saint Liberale, the patron of the church. A small and highly Giottino; and the Giottino of Vasari is said to have been finished study in armour for this figure is now one of the born in 1324, and to have died early, of consumption, in treasures of the National Gallery in London, to which it was 1357,-dates which must be regarded as open to considerable bequeathed by Mr Rogers. To Giorgione are also attributed doubt. Stefano, the father of Tommaso, was himself a pictures in almost all the public and private galleries of celebrated painter in the early revival of art; his naturalism Europe, to a number ten times greater than could possibly was indeed so highly appreciated by contemporaries as to be consistent with the short duration of his career, and with earn him the appellation of "Scimia della Natura" (ape of the fact that no inconsiderable portion of that career must nature). He, it seems, instructed his son, who, however, have been occupied with the production of the perished applied himself with greater predilection to studying the frescos. These so-called Giorgiones of the galleries may to works of the great Giotto, formed his style on these, and some extent be recognized and classified as the work of one hence was called Giottino. It is even said that Giottino or another of several groups of painters whose manner was was really the son (others say the great-grandson) of Giotto. more or less akin to, or influenced by, that of Venice in To this statement little or no importance can be attached. Giorgione's days. One such group belongs to Bergamo; To Maso di Stefano, or Giottino, Vasari and Ghiberti attrianother to Brescia; another is in alliance with Palma; bute the frescos in the chapel of S. Silvestro (or of the another with Titian; another, again, consists of the later Bardi family) in the Florentine church of S. Croce; these and looser imitators of the master himself, as Andrea and represent the miracles of Pope St Sylvester, as narrated in Schiavone, Pietro della Vecchia and Rocco Marcone. It is the Golden Legend, one conspicuous subject being the sealprobable, indeed, that those distinguished authorities, Messrs ing of the lips of a malignant dragon. These works are Crowe and Cavalcaselle, have gone too far in excluding from animated and firm in drawing, with naturalism carried the genuine work of Giorgione several of the most famous further than by Giotto. From the evidence of style, some pictures which have hitherto passed as standards whereby modern connoisseurs assign to the same hand the paintings to judge his manner, as, for instance, the Entombment of in the funeral vault of the Strozzi family, below the Cappella Christ at Treviso, and particularly the beautiful Concert of degli Spagnuoli in the church of S. Maria Novella, representthe Louvre. Without, however, entering upon disputed ing the crucifixion and other subjects. Vasari ascribes also ground, there remains a reasonable number of undoubted to his Giottino the frescos of the life of St Nicholas in the ness, their grand instinct of decoration ; but while they had compassed these qualities at an entire sacrifice of life and animation, it is the glory of Giotto to have been the first among his countrymen to breathe life into art, and to have quickened its stately rigidity with the fire of natural incident and emotion. It was this conquest, this touch of the magician, this striking of the sympathetic notes of life and reality, that chiefly gave Giotto his immense reputation among his contemporaries, and made him the fit exponent of the vivid, penetrating, and practical genius of emancipated Florence. His is one of the few names in history which, having become great while its bearer lived, has sustained no loss of greatness through subsequent generations. lower church of Assisi. This series, however, is not really in that part of the church which Vasari designates, but is in the Chapel of the Sacrament; and the works in that chapel are understood to be by Giotto di Stefano, who worked in the second half of the 14th century-very excellent productions of their period. It might hence be inferred that two different men produced the works which are unitedly fathered upon the half-legendary Giottino," the consumptive youth, solitary and melancholic, but passionately devoted to his art. A large number of other works have been attributed to the same hand; we need only men. tion an Apparition of the Virgin to St Bernard, in the Florentine Academy; a lost painting, very popular in its day, commemorating the expulsion, which took place in No two men were ever more unlike than the rustic Giotto 1313, of the duke of Athens from Florence; and a marble and the patrician Dante; but among the high places of hisstatue erected on the Florentine campanile. Vasari parti- tory, their figures stand side by side on a common eminence. cularly praises Giottino for well-blended chiaroscuro. He They were contemporaries, Dante being the elder of the two left behind him various scholars in the art. by eleven years, and friends, or, at the least, acquaintances. The poetry of Dante, reporting concerning things unseen with a definiteness not less than that of actual vision, served in many ways, until the days of Michelangelo, not only as an inspiration but as a law to the religious art of Italy. This inspiring and legislating authority of the sacred post was exercised first of all upon Giotto,-partly, it appears, by means of personal intercourse between the two men. On the other hand, Giotto is celebrated in Dante's verse as the foremost painter of the new age. Nor is this the only tribute to his pre-eminence which we find in contemporary, or almost contemporary, literature. He is from the first a kind of popular hero. He is celebrated by the poet Petrarch and by the historian Villani. He is made the subject of tales and anecdotes by Boccaccio and by Franco Sacchetti. From these notices, as well as from Vasari, we gain a distinct picture of the man, as one whose nature was in keeping with his peasant origin; whose sturdy frame and plain features corresponded to a character rather distinguished for shrewd and genial strength than for sublimer or more ascetic qualities; a master craftsman, to whose strong combining and inventing powers nothing came amiss; conscious of his own deserts, never at a loss either in the things of his art or in the things of life, and equally ready and efficient whether he has to design the scheme of some great spiritual allegory in colour or imperishable monument in stone, or whether he has to show his wit in the encounter of practical jest and repartee. From his own land we have a contribution to literature which helps to substantiate this conception of his character. A large part of Giotto's fame as a painter was won in the service of the Franciscans, and in the pictorial celebration of the life and ordinances of their founder. As is well known, it was a part of the ordinances of Francis that his disciples should follow his own example in worshipping and being wedded to poverty,--poverty idealized and personified as a spiritual bride and mistress. Giotto, having on the commission of the order given the noblest pictorial embodiment to this and other aspects of the Franciscan doctrine, presently wrote an ode in which his own views on poverty are expressed; and in this he shows that, if on the one hand his genius was at the service of the ideals of his time, and his imagination open to their significance, on the other hand his judgment was very shrewdly aware of their practical dangers and exaggerations. GIOTTO (1276-1336), relatively to his age one of the greatest and most complete of artists, fills in the history of Italian painting a place analogous to that which seems to have been filled in the history of Greek painting by Polygnotus. That is to say, he lived at a time when the resources of his art were still in their infancy, but considering the limits of those resources, his achievements were the highest possible. At the close of the Middle Age, he laid the foundations upon which all the progress of the Renaissance was afterwards securely based. In the days of Giotto, the knowledge possessed by painters of the human frame and its structure rested only upon general observation, and not upon any minute, prolonged, or scientific study; while to facts other than those of humanity their observation had never been closely directed. Of linear perspective they possessed few ideas, and those elementary and empirical, and scarcely any ideas at all of aerial perspective or the conduct of light and shade. As far as painting could ever be carried under these conditions, So far it was carried by Giotto. In its choice of subjects, his art is entirely subservient to the religious spirit of his age. Even in its mode of conceiving and arranging those subjects, it is in part still trammelled by the rules and consecrated traditions of the past. Thus it is as far from being a perfectly free as from being a perfectly accomplished form of art. Many of those truths of nature to which the painters of succeeding generations learnt to give accurate and complete expression, Giotto was only able to express by way of imperfect symbol and suggestion. But in spite of these limitations and shortcomings, and although he has often to be content with expressing truths of space and form conventionally or inadequately, and truths of structure and action approximately, and truths of light and shadow not at all, yet among the elements over which he has control he maintains so just a balance that his work produces in the spectator less sense of imperfection than that of many later and more accomplished masters. He is one of the least one-sided of artists, and his art, it has been justly said, resumes and concentrates all the attainments of his time not less truly than all the attainments of the crowning age of Italian art are resumed and concentrated in Raphael. In some particulars the painting of Giotto was never surpassed, in the judicious division of the field and massing and scattering of groups, in the union of dignity in the types with appropriateness in the occupations of the personages,-in strength and directness of intellectual grasp and dramatic motive,—in the combination of perfect gravity with perfect frankness in conception, and of a noble severity in design with a great charm of harmony and purity in colour. The earlier Byzantine and Roman workers in mosaic had bequeathed to him the high abstract qualities of their practice, their balance, their impressive Giotto di Bondone (a name, as it happens, also borne in the same generation by a distinguished citizen of Siena) was the son of a poor peasant of Vespignano. He was born in 1276, and drew, we are told, by natural instinct with whatever materials he could lay his hands on. He was ten years old when Cimabue, as the story goes, found him by the wayside, drawing a sheep with a piece of charcoal upon a stone or tile. The master, then at the has again thrown in doubt the relative shares of the master occur the portraits of Dante, Brunetto Latini, and Corso Donato, and which, amid the emotion of all who care for art or history, were recovered in 1841 from the whitewash that had overlain them. The whole central period of Giotto's life, from about 1305 to about 1334, is divided between periods of residence at Florence and expeditions, of which we can in very rare instances trace the date or sequence, undertaken in consequence of commissions received from other cities of the peninsula. He was as much or more of a traveller as was Van Eyck a century later; and his travels exercised as much or more of the same fertilizing and stimulating influence on art in Italy as did those of the great Fleming in the north-west of Europe. The familiar story of the O belongs to a journey to France, which was projected by Giotto but never undertaken. Pope Benedict XI., the successor of Boniface VIII., sent a messenger to bring him proofs of the painter's powers. Giotto would give the mes height of his fame, took the peasant boy, with the glad consent of his father, to Florence to be his pupil. Of his early career after this we know no more until we find him at work as the foremost among many scholars employed under Cimabue at the interior decorations of the great memorial church of St Francis at Assisi. This church consists of two structures, cno superimposed on the other; it is of the upper and not of the lower church that we speak at present. On the walls of this, a great series of frescos, now more than half obliterated, was painted by the primi-duced those groups, typical of pacified Florence, in which tive masters of the Tuscan school, including some of older and some of younger standing than Cimabue. The series is in three tiers, the uppermost tier containing scenes from the Old Testament; the next, scenes from the New; the lowest, scenes from the life of St Francis. It is in this last tier than we can discern with certainty the hand of the youthful Giotto. The extent of his participation has been much debated. According to the more probable opinion, it can be traced even in the earlier scenes of the history; but it is in the later scenes only that the hand and promise of the master, the presence of a new and vital spirit, reveal themselves with fulness. Some interval (but the chronology of Giotto's career is at all points obscure) would seem to have elapsed between the execution of these frescos and of others, better known than these, which adorn the lower story of the same structure. In four lunette-shaped spaces in the vaulting of this lower church, Giotto has painted four vast compositions, of which the scheme was dictated to him, no doubt, by some pious and learned mouth-senger no other sample of his talent than an O drawn with piece of the wishes of the order. One of these exhibits a free sweep of the brush from the elbow; but the pope the mystical wedding of Francis with Poverty; a second is was satisfied, and engaged Giotto at a great salary to go an allegory of Chastity; a third of Obedience; a fourth and adorn with frescos the papal residence at Avignon. shows the saint glorified in heaven among the angels. To Benedict, however, dying at this time (1305), nothing came describe and explain these famous compositions would be of this commission; and the Italian 14th century frescos, beyond our scope. The ideas they embody cannot but of which remains are still to be seen at Avignon, have been scem strained and cold when we express them in modern proved to be the work, not, as was long supposed, of language. Strained and cold, indeed, the ideas would have Giotto, but of the Sienese master Simone Martini, called been in any other age of the world; but we must remember Simone Memmi. Another certain date in Giotto's career that the religious temperament of that age in Italy gave belongs to the close of the period we have defined. even to pedantry the colours of passion, and an ardent and 1328 he had painted in the palace of the Signoria at solemn reality to the most far-drawn fantasies of devotion. Florence a portrait (now lost) of Charles of Calabria kneelAnd however cool the private judgment of Giotto in such ing before the Virgin. Two years later he was invited by matters may have been, it is not his private judgment the father of this prince, King Robert of Naples, to come which speaks to us from the painted allegories of Assisi; and work for him in that city. Some frescos in the it is the sincere imagination of the men among whom he chapel of the Incoronata had been long erroneously supposed, lived; it is the ardour and solemnity of the devotional spirit on the authority of Petrarch, to represent a part at any rate of his race. In one of the transepts of the same lower of the industry of Giotto during the three years which he church there are frescos of the Passion of Christ, and spent at Naples. It is the merit of Messrs Crowe and others of the life of St Francis, which modern authorities Cavalcaselle, while conclusively setting aside this tradition, hold against ancient, most likely with justice, to be also to have called attention to a real and very noble work of from the hand of Giotto. the master existing in a hall which formerly belonged to the convent of Sta. Chiara in that city. This is a fresco celebrating the charity of the Franciscan order under the figure of the miracle of the loaves and fishes, with the personages of St Francis and St Clare kneeling on either hand. Assuming that the later work of the master at Assisi belongs to the year 1296 or thereabouts, we have good evidence that two years afterwards he was working at Rome for the Cardinal Stefaneschi, nephew of Pope Boniface VIII. The remains of his industry in this employment may be seen in a mosaic of the Navicella, or Christ saving St Peter from the waves, now preserved in the portico of St Peter's at Rome, and in three panels, kept in the sacristy of the canons of the same church, which originally formed part of a ciborium. It is also recorded that Giotto adorned certain MSS. with miniatures for this patron; and in truth there exists in public libraries a very rare class of MSS., in which the miniatures bear the marks, if scarcely of the hand, at any rate of the immediate influonce of Giotto. Lastly, a discoloured fragment of a fresco of the church of St John Lateran shows the figure of Pope Boniface VIII. announcing from a balcony the opening of the famous Jubilee of the year 1300. Soon after this, Giotto was once more in his native city. Recent research In Between these two dates (1305 and 1330), Giotto is said to have resided and left great works at Padua, Ferrara, Urbino, Ravenna, Rimini, Faenza, Lucca, and other cities; and in several of these paintings are still shown which bear his name with more or less of plausibility. But among them it is at Padua only that his authentic and mature powers can really be studied, and that in perhaps the greatest and most complete series of creations of all that he has left. These are the frescos with which he decorated the chapel built in honour of the Virgin of the Annunciation by a rich citizen of the town, Enrico Scrovegni, and called sometimes the chapel of the Arena, because it is on the site of an ancient amphitheatre. Since it is recorded that Dante was Giotto's guest at Padua, and since we know that it was in 1306 that he came from Bologna to that city, we may conclude that to the same year, 1306, belongs the beginning of Giotto's great undertaking in the Arena thapel. The scheme includes a Saviour in Glory over the altar, & Last Judgment over the entrance door, and on either side a series of subjects from the Old and New Testaments and the apocryphal Life of Christ, painted in three tiers, and lowest of all, a fourth tier with emblematic Virtues and Vices in monochrome, the Virtues being on the side of the thapel which is next the incidents of redemption in the entrance fresco of the Last Judgment, the Vices on that side which is next the incidents of perdition. There is no other single building, or single series of representations, in which the highest powers of the Italian mind and hand at the beginning of the 14th century may be so well studied as here. In the same city, the great Franciscan church of St Antonio contains also the remains of works by the master. And it was still for the same order, in their renowned church of Santa Croce, that Giotto executed most of the paintings which mark the periods of his residence in Florence. Besides a vast altar-piece or panel for the Baroncelli chapel, he decorated with frescos the walls of a number of private chapels in this church. The Baroncelli altar-piece still exists; the only chapels of which the frescos have been uncovered are those of the Bardi and Peruzzi. Nor are these the only walls in Florence which to this day bear record of the powers of Giottowithout taking into account many that are attributed to him; but are really by the hand of pupils like Taddeo Gaddi or Puccio Capanna, or of weaker followers like Giottino, Giovanni da Milano, or Agnolo Gaddi. Meantime, Giotto had been advancing, not only in fame, but in years and in prosperity. He was married young, and had, so far as is recorded, three sons, Francesco, Niccola, and Donato, and three daughters, Bice, Caterina, and Lucia. He had added by successive purchases to the plot of land inherited from his father at Vespignano. His fellow-citizens of all occupations and degrees delighted to honour him. And now, in his fifty-eighth year, on his return from Naples by way of Gaëta, he received the final and official testimony to the esteem in which he was held at Florence. By a solemn decree of the Priori (April 12, 1334), he was appointed master of the works of the cathedral of Sta. Reparata (subsequently and better known as Sta. Maria del Fiore), and architect of the city walls and of the towns within her territory. Dying in 1336, he only enjoyed these dignities for two years. But in the course of these two years he had found time not only to make an excursion to Milan, on the invitation of Azzo Visconti and with the sanction of his own Government, but to plan and in part to superintend the execution of two monuments of architecture, of which the one remaining is among the most exquisite in design and richest in decoration that were ever conceived by man. These were, the west front of the cathedral, and its detached campanile or bell tower. The cathedral front was barbarously stripped of its enrichments in a later age, and stood naked until the other day, when the city of Florence undertook to restore it in a modern imitation. The campanile remains, except for inconsiderable repairs, as it was left by the pupils of Giotto after their master's death; and in the consummate dignity as well as consummate delicacy of its design, in its fair proportions and in the opulent but lucid invention and apportionment of its details, in the thoughtfulness and pregnant simplicity of its sculptured histories, it is the most fitting Crown and monument of a strong and memorable career. complete bibliography of the earlier as well as the more recent authorities on Giotto would here be out of place. The main materials and references will be found in the following :-Vasari, ed. Lemonnier, vol. i. pp. 309 sqq.; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Hist. of Painting in Italy, vol. i. chaps. 8 to 11; Ernst Förster, Geschichte der Italienischen Kunst, vol. ii. pp. 211 sqq., and E. Dobbert in article "Giotto" in Dohme's Kunst und Künstler, vol. iii. (S. C.) about 11 miles from Bari, on the railway from Otranto to GIOVINAZZO, a town of Italy, in the province of Bari, Bologna. Situated on the coast, it has a small harbour, and carries on an export trade in the olives, almonds, and carobs produced in the vicinity. It is also the seat of a bishop, and possesses a cathedral, a castle, and a famous ospizio or poorhouse, which was founded by Ferdinand I. of Naples, and is now used partly for the education of foundlings and orphans, and partly for the reformatory treatment of juvenile criminals. Cloth, carpets, thread, and shoes are among the manufactures of the place, and the children of the ospizio are largely trained in such industries. Whether the identification with the ancient town called Netium or Natiolum be well founded or not, it is certain that Giovinazzo was in existence at a very early date, and some portions of its seawall are supposed to belong to the later Roman period. The population of the town in 1875 was 8902, and of the commune 9108. GIOVIO, PAUL. See JOVIUS. GIPSIES, a wandering folk scattered through every European land, over the greater part of Asia and North America, and along the northern coast of Africa. Bell of Antermony speaks in his Travels (1763) of meeting at Tobolsk a band of sixty Tziggany on their way to China; Koster describes the Brazilian Ciganos (Travels in Brazil, 1816); and at the present day cases of Gipsy emigration to Australia are not unknown. No general estimate can be formed of their numbers outside Europe, but travellers agree that they are very numerous in Persia. in 1877), and Egypt (one alone of the three chief tribes, (3000 families in 1856), Armenia, Asiatic Turkey (67,000 the Ghagars, being reckoned at 16,000); whilst in Ameriĉa, besides a multitude of British Gipsies, Gipsies from Spain, France, Germany, and Hungary are not unfrequent. The total, 700,000, at which Miklosich placed (1878) the European Gipsies, fairly agrees with the following fragmentary statistics. Turkey, before its late dismemberment, contained 104,750 (9537 in Bosnia and the Herzegovina in 1874); Servia had 24,691 in 1874, Montenegro 500 in 1873; and in Roumania there are from 200,000 to 300,000, according to the varying estimates of Cretzulesco (1876) and the Annuaire général officiel de Roumanie (1874). In 1876 Austria counted about 1000 (13,500 in Bohemia in 1846), and Hungary 159,000 (78,923 in Transylvania in 1850, and 36,842 in Hungary proper. in 1864); while. Spain is credited with 40,000, France with from 2000 to 6000 (700 in the Basque country), Germany and Italy together with 34,000 (?), and Scandinavia with 1500. In Russia their number in 1834 was stated at 48,247, exclusive of Polish Gipsies, in 1844 at 1,427.539. and in 1877 at 11,654.1 Names.-Just as in every European land the Gipsy calla “Gentiles" (i.e., non-Gipsies) gaje, he calls himself Rom, "a man or husband." This word Rom, connected by Paspati with the name of the Indian god Ráma, is by Miklosich identified with the Sanskrit doma or domba, "a low-caste musician."2 Of names conferred by "Gen 1 In England the census of 1871 gives the number of vagrants and Gipsies" as 2280, in Scotland of vagrants as 1793. These figures, however, while they include a good many non-Gipsy tramps and show. dealers, basket-inakers, hawkers, and tinkers, entered under their several people, exclude all house-dwelling Gipsies, besides the Gipsy horseheadings, and are therefore utterly valueless. 2 Sinté, another appellation current among the Gipsies of Germany, Poland, and Scandinavia, and possibly connected with the Zincalo of the Gitanos, has been likewise variously derived from the Sanskrit Sindhu (Indus), and from the Romani sundó, "famous," whilst Bataillard identifies it with the Σίντιες οι Σίντιοι ἄνδρες of Homer, Strabo &c. (cf. Pott, i. 32-35), man tiles," some point to the fancied cradle of the Gipsy race. Thus Gipsy or Gypsy itself (Egyptian in the 16th century), the Spanish Gitano, Albanian Jevk, modern Greek Túpros, Magyar Pharao népek ("Pharaoh's people "), and Turkish Färäwni, preserve the belief in its Egyptian origin, a belief which finds no confirmation except in the casual resemblance between Rom and the Egyptian rôme, (cf. Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 225), and which was possibly due to the Gipsies' skill in serpent-charming. The Scandinavian and Low-German Tatare identifies Gipsies with the Mongolian hordes, the terror of Europe in the 13th century; and their French name Bohémiens was probably due either to a confusion of some such form as Secani with Czech or to the belief that Gipsies originated in Bohemia. To the same class belong Walachi, Cilices, Uxii, Saraceni, Agareni, Nubiani, &c., cited by Fritschius (1660). Other names again denote the character, hue, or callings of the race, as Arabic Harámí, "villain;" Dutch Heydens, "heathens," Persian Karachi, "swarthy;" and modern Greek Karißelos, by Somavera derived from the Latin captivus, by Bataillard connected with Béλos, "a dart," and so with the Gipsies' name in Cyprus, Kilindjirides, from the Turkish gylid, "a sword." Their Scotch name Tinkler, which occurs in a charter of William the Lion (1165-1214), is | commonly held to be a mere variant of tinker; but if its | initial correspond to z (cf. English ten, German zehn), it comes very near the Italian Zingaro or Zingano, which, like the German Zigeuner, Czech Cingán or Cigán, and Magyar Cigány, is a form of the most widespread of all the Gipsies' appellations-Bulgarian Atzigan, modern Greek 'Aroiyκανος οι Αθίγγανος. The last was also the title of a separatist sect in Asia Minor, so called, it is supposed, because its members kept themselves from contact with unbelievers (a privative, and Otyyávo, "to touch"). Miklosich, finding in it the source of all the preceding forms, believes it to have been transferred by the Greeks to Gipsies, either because the latter entered the western parts of the Byzantine empire from Phrygia and Lycaonia, or because they were suspected of being adherents of the sect or simply as a nickname (Mikl., vi. pp. 57-66). Bataillard, on the other hand, identifying the heretic 'Abiyyavo with Gipsy 'ATσiykavo, and these with the Ziyuvvat of Herodotus (v. 9), derives the name from oyun, "a javelin ;" while others among the countless etymologies proposed are Goeje's from Persiau chang, a kind of harp or cither;" Burton's from Persian zang, "Ethiopia;" and Newbold's from Persian rin, "a saddle." First Appearance in European History. From whatever cause, it is certain that a confusion did exist between the Ατσίγκανοι and ̓Αθίγγανοι, which renders it extremely difficult to determine whether the Byzantine historians are speaking of Gipsies or heretics in seven passages collected by Miklosich. It appears from these that Abiyyavor, described as magicians, soothsayers, and serpent-charmers, first emerge in Byzantine history under Nicephorus I. (802-11), were banished by Michael I. (811-13), and were restored to favour by Michael II. (820-29); but Miklosich's reasons for absolutely identifying them with Gipsies, and positively asserting the latter to have appeared at Byzantium in 810 under Nicephorus, are hard to recognize. Less dubious seems an extract from the Georgian Life of Giorgi Mtharsmindel (11th century), which describes how at Constantinople certain descendants of the race of Simon Magus, Atsinkan by name, sorcerers and famous rogues, slew wild beasts by their magic arts in the presence of Bagrat IV. Such passages are open to some doubt; hardly so the following from the Itinerarium Symonis Simeonis (ed. by J. Nasmith, Camb. 1778), where Fitz Simeon, a Franciscan friar of Dublin, describing his stay in Crete in 1322, says :-"We there saw a people living outside the city (of Candia), who worship according to the Greek rite, and declare themselves of the race of Ham. They rarely or never stop in one place more than thirty days, but, as though accursed of heaven, wander from field to field with little, oblong, black, low tents, like those of the Arabs, or from cave to cave." The empress Catherine de Valois, again, who died in 1346, granted to the suzerains of Corfu authority to reduce to vassalage certain homines vageniti coming from the mainland, who under the Venetians formed in 1386 the nucleus of a feudum Acinganorum that lasted down to the present century. About 1378 the Venetian governor of Nauplion confirmed the Acingani of that Greek colony in privileges granted by his predecessors, and in 1387 Mircea I., waiwode of Wallachia, renewed a grant made by his uncle Ladislaus to the monastery of St Anthony at Voditza of forty salaschi (tents) of Acigani. Other documents might be cited, but these are enough to show that in the 14th century Gipsies existed in the Balkan peninsula and islands of the Levant; that in Wallachia they were reduced to a state of bondage (from which they were only freed in 1856); and that nowhere were they regarded as new-comers, so that by these documents it is impossible to fix the date of the first Gipsy immigration. More than this, a metrical German paraphrase of Genesis, made by an Austrian monk about 1122, preserved at Vienna, and edited by Hoffmann in his Fundgruben für Geschichte deutscher Sprache (Breslau, 1837), goes far to prove that Gipsies were known in Austria three centuries before the commonly-accepted date of their appearance in that country. A passage relating to Hagar's descendants (Gen. xvi. 15) ruus-"So she (Hagar) had this son; they named him Ishmael. It is from him the Ishmaelites descend. They journey far through the world; we call them chaltsmide (lit. cold-smiths). . . They have no house nor country; everywhere they are found alike; they wander over the country, abusing people by their knaveries. Thus they deceive men,-robbing no one openly." That here by chaltsmide, Ishmaelites, and descendants of Hagar Gipsies are meant, scarcely admits of doubt, seeing that the smith's is still the Gipsies' leading handicraft; that Lusignan in 1573 speaks of the Gipsies of Cyprus as "Cinquanes, otherwise called Agariens;" and that in German and Danish Rotwülsch or thieves' slang Geschmeilim and Smaelem (i.e., Ishmaelites) signify "Gipsies." The κωμοδρόμοι also of Byzantine writers were possibly Gipsies, being defined by Ducange as "circulatores atque adeo Fabri ærarii qui per pagos cursitant: ut hodie passim apud nos, quos Chaudronniers dicimus." Theophanes (758-818) speaks under the date 544 of a кwμodpóμos from Italy. Later Movements.-Late in 1417 there came to Lüne burg a band of 300 wanderers, black as Tartars and calling themselves Secani." At their head rode a "duke" and "count," splendidly dressed, and leading like nobles dogs of chase; next came a motley crew afoot; and women and children brought up the rear in waggons. They bore among other letters of safe-conduct one granted by the emperor Sigismund, and professed themselves engaged on a seven years' pilgrimage, imposed by their bishops in expiation of apostacy from the Christian faith. From Lüneburg they passed to Hamburg, Lübeck, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, and Greifswald, camping by night outside the walls, thieving by day, "wherefore several were taken and slain" (cf. the contemporary annals of Korner and Rufus, and Krantz's Saxonia, 1520). In 1418 they journeyed southwards through Meissen, Leipsic, and Hesse, and, entering Switzerland, arrived at Zurich on August 31st, visiting also Basel, Bern, and Solothurn, according to Conrad Justinger (died 1426), who speaks of them as more than 200 baptized heathens from Egypt." They now split up into two bands, the first of 66 |