any previous preparation, in order that he may araw to himself all kindred spiritual natures held in bondage by the power of this lower world. If any point of connexion is admitted in this latter case betwixt Christianity and the lower world, it is certainly not found in Judaism or any historical religion, but in the theosophic schools, where an esoteric knowledge of the Supreme was cultivated.

IV. Vague, confused, and irrational as Gnosticism in most of its systems is, its influence upon the development of Christian thought was by no means detrimental. It com. pelled Christian teachers to face the great problems of which it attempted the solution in so many fantastic forms. It expanded the horizon of controversy within as without the church, and made men like Irenæus, and Clement, and Origen, and even Tertullian, feel that it was by the weapons of reason and not of authority that they must win the triumph of Catholic Christianity. Gnosticism, therefore, may be said to have laid the foundation of Christian science, and it is certainly interesting and deserving of notice that it is in the two great cities of Antioch and Alexandria, -where Gnosticism had chiefly planted itself, that we see the rise of the first two schools of Christian thought. These centres of half-Pagan and half-Christian speculation became the first centres of rational Christian theology.

The several schools of Gnosticism seem to have gradually lost importance after the middle of the 3d century, although some of them continued to linger till the 6th century. Manichæism was little else than a revival of it in the Syrian form, and this system in the 4th and 5th centuries became so powerful as almost to be a rival to Christianity. The great Christian father St Augustine, as is well known, was long fascinated by its influence. Again, strangely, in the 12th century the same spirit burst forth afresh, and in special connexion with the name of the great apostle of the Gentiles, The sect of Paulicians, originating in the old Syrian haunt of heresy, Samosata, spread through Asia Minor, and then through Bulgaria and the borders of the Greek empire into Italy, Germany, and France. Gibbon, in the 54th chapter of his famous Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, has given a vivid and powerful description of the fortunes and persecutions of the sect, and the readiness with which its doctrines seized upon whole populations. Ia southern France especially it spread like wildfire, and for a time almost entirely displaced Catholic Christianity. This Western development of the old Oriental dualism was characterized by many of the features of the earlier Gnosticism, such as the doctrine of the radical evil of matter, aversion to the Old Testament as the work of an evil Demiurge, and a docetic Christology. Extinguished in the horrors of the Albigensian war, it can hardly be said to have reappeared in the history of Christendom.

Literature.-Only one original Gnostic work has survived to modern times, the ioris copia of Valentinus (edited by Petermann, Berlin, 1851); for all further knowledge of the system we are entirely dependent on the treatises of its avowed opponents, especially on that of Irenæus (ἔλεγχος τῆς ψευδωνύμου γνώσεως) and on that of Hippolytus (AeYXOS Kaтà Taσwv aipérewv), although reference may also be made to passages bearing on the subject in the writings of Jastin Martyr, Tertullian, Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, Eusebins, Philastrius, Epiphanius, Theodoret, Augustine, and Plotinus. The subject is taken up with more or less fulness in all the church histories, and histories of philosophy. Among the more important recent works bearing upon the elucidation of Gnosticism may be mentioned those of Neander (Genetische Entwickelung der vornehmsten Gnostischen Systeme, 1818), Matter (Histoire critique du Gnosticisme, 1828, 2d ed. 1843), Baur (De Gnosticorum Christianismo Ideali, 1827; Die Christliche Gnosis, 1835; Die drei ersten Jahrhunderte, 3d ed., 1863), Bunsen (Hippolytus u. seine Zeit, 1852-53), Lipsius (art. "Gnosticismus" in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopädie, republished in a revised form with the title Der Gnosticismus; sein Wesen, Ursprung, und Entwickelung, 1860), Harnack (Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des Gnosticismus, 1873), Mansel (Gnostic Heresies, 1875), and Lipsius (Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte

neu untersucht, 1875). References to the monographs by Ritschl, Volkmar, Heinrici, Hilgenfeld, and others on special branches of BASILIDES, MARCION, Valentinus, &c. the subject will be found under the several headings BARDESANES, (J. T.)

GNU (Caloblepas), a genus of ruminant mammals constituting the equine group of the antelope family, and containing two species-the gnu or kokoon (Catoblepas gnu) and the brindled gnu (Catoblepas gorgon). Owing to their singular appearance, which has been aptly compared to that of a creature compounded of a bison's head, a horse's body, and an antelope's legs, their proper zoological position has been a matter of dispute-some placing them among the oxen, while others regard them as a connecting link betwear. about 4 feet in height at the shoulders, and 9 feet in exbovine animals and the true antelopes. The gnu measures treme length. Its nose is broad and flattened, and bears on its upper surface a crest of reversed hair, while there is an abundant growth of bushy black hair beneath the chin and between the forelegs. The horns, which are present in both sexes, are very broad at their base, forming a solid helmet on the forehead, from which they bend downwards and outwards, thereafter curving rapidly upwards to the tip. A mane of light-coloured hair, tipped with brown, and presenting a neatly clipped appearance, extends along the neck,

while the horse-like tail, which is more or less of a creamy colour, reaches to the ground. The nostrils are large, and are furnished with a muscular valve by which they can be closed. The gnu is a native of the arid plains of South Africa, where it congregates in considerable herds, its restlessness of disposition leading it to migrate frequently from place to place. The fantastic appearance of those creatures is fully equalled by the grotesqueness of their actions. Advancing, as they generally do, in single file, they may be seen wheeling and prancing in all directions, tossing their heads, switching their long tails, and then starting off, especially if alarmed by the appearance of a lion, at tremendous speed, raising columns of dust along their track, and leaving their pursuers hopelessly in the rear. Should they be surprised in their gambols by the sight of a caravan, their exceeding inquisitiveness impels them to approach the intruding object, which they do in a compact square, looking all the while the very picture of defiance. "During bright moonlight," says Captain Harris, "curiosity often prompted a clump of gnus to approach within a few yards of our bivouac, where they would stand for hours in the same position, staring wildly, lashing their dark flauks, and utter

ing a subdued note resembling the harsh croaking of a frog." The noise made by the old bulls, as they roam singly during the rutting season, is much more formidable, being usually compared to the roar of the lion; and many sportsmen who have hunted the gnu bear testimony to the remarkable likeness between the solitary males with their long manes, when seen at a considerable distance, and the "king of beasts." They are by no means the formidable creatures their ferocious aspect might lead one to suppose. However defiant the herd appears as it approaches a caravan, the report of a gun puts the whole troop of gnus to flight, and they are never known to attack man unless driven thereto in selfdefence. The female has seldom more than a single young one at a birth, the calf at first being of a whitish colour. When captured young, the gnu may, according to Captain Harris, be reared by the hand on cows' milk; and although of uncertain temper, it can be got to herd with the cattle on the farm. The flesh of the calf is considered a delicacy, but that of the adult is insipid, being almost destitute of fat. Its long silky tail is in great request for chowries, and its hide is cut into strips and used for ropes and twine. The brindled gnu is a more northerly form, never being found south of the Orange river. It is readily distinguished from the other species by the black colour of its tail and mane, the obscure vertical streaks on its body, its more elevated withers, and its extremely long aquiline nose. While equally grotesque in appearance and manner, it is much less spirited and active than the gnu. Its flesh is highly prized by the natives, who also convert its hide into mantles, rendered attractive to South African taste by being dressed without removing the long hair of the mane and beard.

GOA, a Portuguese settlement on the Malabar or western coast of India, lying between 15° 44′ 30′′ and 14° 53′ 30′′ N. lat., and between 73° 45′ and 74° 26' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the river Tirakul or Auraundem, separating it from Sáwant Wári State, on the E. by the Western Ghats, on the S. by Kanara district, and on the W. by the Arabian Sea. Total area, 1062 square miles; population, 392,234.

This settlement forms a patch of foreign territory on the east of the Bombay coast, and is surrounded on all sides, except to the seaward, by British districts. Goa is a hilly country, especially the recently acquired portion known as the Novas Conquistas. Its distinguishing feature is the Sahyadri Mountains, which after skirting a considerable portion of the north-eastern and south-eastern boundary, branch off westwards across the territory with numerous spurs and ridges. The plains are well watered by large navigable rivers. The most important is the Mandavi river, on whose banks both the ancient and modern cities of Goa stand, with a fine harbour formed by the promontories of Bardez and Salsette. The port of New Goa or Panjim is divided into two anchorages by the projection of the cabo (cape) from the island of Goa, both capable of safely accommodating the largest shipping.

Goa ranks high as regards its early importance among the cities of western India. It emerges very distinctly in the 14th century, and was visited by the famous traveller Ibn Batuta. In the 15th century it formed the chief emporium of trade on the western side of India. Caravans of merchants brought down its products to the coast, and it was the only city in western India which enjoyed at this period a revenue of £10,000. Its wealth and advantageous situation attracted the liahometan princes of the Deccan, and in 1469 it was taken by the Báhmani king. A fleet of 120 ships operated from the sea; the Báhmani troops forced their way down the passes of the Gháts; and Goa capitulated It next passed under the Bijapur dynasty, and on the arrival of Albuquerque, at the beginning of the

16th century, its military and commercial capabilities at once struck his mind. In 1510 the fleet of Albuquerque, consisting of 20 sail of the line, with a few small vessels and 1200 fighting men, hove in sight off the harbour. A holy mendicant or joyi had lately foretold its conquest by a foreign people from a distant land, and the disheartened citizens rendered up the town to the strangers. Eight leading men presented the keys of the gates to Albuquerque on their knees, together with a large banner which was usually unfurled on state occasions. Mounted on a richly caparisoned steed, Albuquerque entered the city in a triumphal procession, with the Portuguese banners carried by the flower of the Lisbon nobility and clergy amidst the acclamations of an immense multitude, who showered upon the conqueror filigree flowers of silver and gold. Albu querque bebaved well to the inhabitants, but was shortly afterwards expelled by the Bijapur king. However, he returned a few months later with a fleet of 28 ships carrying 1700 men, and after a bloody attack, in which 2000 Mussulmans fell, forced his way into the town. For three days the miserable citizens were subjected to every atrocity. The fifth part of the plunder, reserved for the Portuguese crown, amounted to £20,000.

"Goa

The conquest of Goa illustrates the essentially military basis on which the Portuguese power in India rested. The subsequent history of the town has been one of luxury, ostentation, and decay. After bearing a siege by the king of Bijapur, and suffering from a terrible epidemic, Goa reached the summit of its prosperity at the end of the 16th century, during the very years when the English Company was struggling into existence under Elizabeth. Dourada," or Golden Goa, seemed a place of fabulous wealth to the plain merchants who were destined to be the founders of British India. "Whoever has seen Goa need not see Lisbon," said a proverb of that day. Indeed, if the accounts of travellers are to be trusted, Goa presented a scene of military, ecclesiastical, and commercial magnificence, such as has had no parallel in the European capitals of India. The brilliant pomp and picturesque display of Goa were due to the fact that it was not only a flourishing harbour, but the centre of a great military and ecclesiastical power. The Portuguese based their dominion in India on conquest by the sword. They laboured to consolidate it by a proselytizing organization which throws all other missionary efforts in India into the shade. Goa reached its climax of pomp and power about the year 1600. Immediately afterwards commenced the long struggle with the Dutch, which before the end of the century had stripped Portugal of its fairest possessions in the East. In 1603 the Dutch blockaded Goa, but had to raise the siege. In 1635 the old epidemic fever which had afflicted Goa in the preceding century again broke out, and raged for five years. In 1639 the Dutch once more blockaded Goa, but found their meagre force of twelve ships insufficient for its capture. In 1666 luxury and the plague and the Dutch privateers had effectually crippled the commerce of Goa. Thevenot in that year drew a powerful picture of the decayed city. In 1675 Dr John Fryer described the city as in a ruinous state, whilst the inhabitants still made pitiful attempts at display in spite of their increasing misery. In 1683 Goa narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the Marhattá hordes under Sambáji. Before 1687 the abandonment of Old Goa had taken place. "Many streets," says an official document of that year, have now become lonely and uninhabited." The river had silted opposite its quays, ships could no longer approach the city, the fever had again broken out, and the population had moved out to suburbs nearer the mouth of the river. In 1695 only 20,000 inhabitants remained. In 1739 the whole territory was attacked by the Marhattás, and only saved by the unexpected appearance of a new viceroy with a fleet. Various attempts were made in vain to rebuild Old Goa, aud by the middle of the 18th century "this fairest but poorest settlement had become a burden to the Portuguese Home Government, costing no less than 300,000 piastres a year.

In 1759 further attempts to rebuild Old Goa were given up, and the governor changed his residence to Panjim or New Goa, the In 1775 the population present city, at the mouth of the river. was reduced to about 1600 souls, of whom 1198 were Christians, almost entirely half-castes and native converts. In 1759 also the Jesuits were expelled. They had got into their hands what little commerce remained, and the last touch was put to the ruin of Old Goa. "The river washes the remains of a great city,-an arsenal in ruins, palaces in ruins, quay walls in ruins, churches in ruins,all in ruins. We looked and saw the site of the Inquisition, the bishop's prison, a grand cathedral, great churches, chapels, convents, religious houses, on knolls surrounded by jungie and trees,

GOAT. All the species of the genus Capra may be divided into two classes, the one being represented by the ibex (see IBEX) and the other the goat. The latter class is subdivided into the ægagrus or wild goat (Capra ægagrus) and the domestic goat (Capra hircus), of which there are many varieties.

The Wild Goat, or Paseng of the Persians (Capra ægagrus, Pall.), is an inhabitant of the mountainous regions of Central Asia from the Caucasus to the Himalayas, and is occasionally met with in troops at great elevations. It stands somewhat higher than any of the domesticated varieties of the goat, from which it further differs in its stouter limbs and more slender body. Its neck is short, and is thus fitted to bear the enormous horns, which in the male are larger proportionally than in any other ruminant animal. These measure nearly three feet in length, are obscurely triangular in form, transversely ridged, and are bent backward as in the domestic varieties. The wild goat of the Himalayas, according to Darwin, when it happens to fall accidentally from a height, makes use of its massive horns by bending forward its head and alighting on them, thus breaking the shock. In the female the horns are exceedingly diminutive, or are altogether awanting. The fur, which over the greater part of the body is short, is of a greyish-brown colour, with a black line running along the entire length of the back; the short tail and the muzzle are also black, while the under surface of the neck, and the beard, which is present in both sexes, are of a brown colour. The paseng is exceedingly wary of the approach of man, and as its agility is no less remarkable there has been little opportunity of studying it closely. The concretions known as bezoar-stones, which were formerly much used in medicine and as antidotes of poison, are believed to have been originally obtained from the intestines of this species.

Considerable diversity of opinion has been expressed by naturalists as to the original stock of the domestic goat, which is met with in nearly every quarter of the globe, the now prevalent and the most probable opinion being that the various domestic breeds are severally descended from wild stock now extinct. Both the ibex and the ægagrus interbreed freely with the common goat, though the produce is not always fertile. Instances of this are not unusual in the Alps and Pyrenees, where goats abound in a semi-domesticated state. Hybrids between the goat and the sheep are also known to have occurred, but are rare.

The following are the chief domestic breeds, possessing distinct characteristics :-the Common Goat, the Maltese, the Syrian, the Angora, the Cashmere, the Nubian or Egyptian, and the Dwarf Goat of Guinea.

The Common Goat.-This has many varieties which differ from each other in length of hair, in colour, and slightly in the configuration of the horns. The ears are more or less upright, sometimes horizontal, but never actually pendent, as in some Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather flat at the base and not unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically from the head, curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally inclined. The colour varies from a dirty white to a dark-brown, but never black, which indicates Eastern blood. Most of the European countries possess more than one description of the common goat. In the British Isles there are two distinct types, one short and the other long haired. In the former case the hair is thick and close, with frequently an undercoat resembling wool. The horns are large in the male, and of moderate size in the female, flat at the base and inclining outwards. The head is short and tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose small; the legs strong, thick, and well covered with hair. The colour varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently

fawn, with a dark line down the spine and across the shoulders. The other variety owns a shaggy coat, generally of a reddish-black hue, though sometimes grey or pied and occasionally white. The head is long, heavy, and ugly, the nose coarse and prominent, the horns are situated close together, and often continue parallel almost to the extremities, being also large, corrugated, and pointed. The legs are long, and the sides flat, the animal itself being generally gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to Ireland, the Welsh being of a similar description, but more often white. The short-haired goat is the English goat proper. From the constant crossing however that takes place between these native breeds and imported foreign 'specimens, one meets in England with animals possessing very great diversity of form. Both the British breeds and those from abroad are frequently ornamented with two peculiar tassel-like appendages, which hang near together under the throat. It is supposed by many that these ornaments are traceable to some foreign origin; but although there are foreign breeds that possess them, they appear to pertain quite as much to the English native breeds as to those of distant countries, and indeed the peculiarity referred to is mentioned in very old works that describe the goats of the British Islands. The milk produce in the common goat as well as other kinds varies very greatly with individuals. Irish goats often yield a quantity of milk, but the quality is comparatively poor. The goats of France are very similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour, and character of horns. A French writer describes them as possessing "a particularly neat and compact head, small mouth, horns corrugated, and inclining upwards and outwards, a thin neck, narrow chest, and long body, long but muscular legs, and in colour white, black, fawn, or pied." The Norway breed is frequently pure white with long hair; it is rather small in size, with small bones, a short rounded body, head small with a prominent forehead, and short, straight, corrugated horns. The facial line is concave. The horns of the male are very large, and curl round after the manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair between and in front.

The Maltese Goat has its ears long and wide and perfectly pendulous, hanging down below the jaw. The hair is long and cream-coloured.. Specimens of this kind are usually hornless, which is perhaps the cause of it having been called the "Hornless Variety." It would appear, however, that the absence of these appendages is simply a freak of nature, and not the peculiar characteristic of a particular species.

The Syrian Goat.-This breed is met with in various parts of the East, in Lower Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean, and in the island of Madagascar. Both its hair and ears are excessively long, the latter so much so that they are sometimes clipt to prevent their being torn by stones or thorny shrubs. Its horns are somewhat erect and spiral, with an outward bend.

The Angora Goat is often confounded with the Cashmere, but is in reality quite distinct from it. The principal feature of this breed, of which there are two or three varieties, is the length and quantity of its hair, which has a

particularly soft and silky texture, covering the whole body and a great part of the legs with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male differ from those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape spiral, whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat like those of a ram. The face has a sheepish expression. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair, the one short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies close to the skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of wool, forming the outer covering. Both are used by the manufacturer, but the exterior portion, which makes up by far the greater bulk, is much ike more valuable. The process of shearing takes,

place in early spring, and is conducted with the utmost care; the average amount of wool yielded by each animal is about 2 Ib. The best quality comes from castrated males, the females producing the next best. The annual export of wool from Angora is estimated at about 2,000,000 lb, and its value at £200,000. Large herds are shipped at Constantinople and sent to Cape Colony, where this breed thrives well and is largely propagated, the climate being specially suitable to the perfect development of the wool. A very valuable consignment of these animals arrived in London in May 1879 for transshipment to the Cape, having been procured from different parts of Asia Minor, by means of great personal exertion, by Mr J. B. Evans, a SouthAfrican goat farmer. The wool, or mohair, as it is technically termed, of these goats was remarkably long, fine, and heavy, the average weight of the produce of the herd being reckoned at 6 lb per head. So highly is this breed

FIG. 1.-Angora Male Goat.

esteemed by the Turkish farmers that it was with the greatest reluctance they were induced to sell them, and then only at exorbitant prices, some of the males costing £250 and females £150. £50 and £60 are common prices for these goats at Angora. Fig. 1 is from a photo. graph of the finest male of the flock, the fleece of which was estimated to weigh when shorn full 15 b. The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. In 1878, according to the customs returns, 1,300,585 b weight of mohair was exported, of the value of £105,313. The Angora is a bad milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh is better eating than that of any other breed, and in its native country is preferred to mutton. The kids are born very small, but grow fast, and arrive early at maturity. This variety of the goat approaches nearest in its nature, form, and habits to the sheep, even the voice having a strong resemblance.

The Cashmere Goat.-This animal has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous ears, which are both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is coarse and of different colours according to the individual. The horns are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards and to such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is composed, as in the Angora, of two materials; but in this breed it is the under coat that partakes of the nature of wool and is valued as an article of commerce. This undergrowth, which is of a uniform greyish-white tint, whatever the colour of the hair may be, is beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy description resembling down. It makes its appearance in the autumn, and continues to grow until the following spring, when if not removed, it falls off naturally; its collection then commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all the wool and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes with it, is removed. The latter is afterwards carefully separated, when the fleece in a good specimen weighs about half a pound, being worth

between half to three quarters of a rupee. It is sold by the "turruk" of 12 b. This is the material of which the far-famed and costly shawls are made, which at one time had such a demand that, it is stated, "16,000 looms were kept in constant work at Cashmere in their manufacture." Those goats having a short, neat head, very long, thin ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat, are for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties possessing this valuable quality, but those of Cashmere, Thibet, and Mongolia are the most esteemed. About the year 1816 a small herd of Cashmeres was introduced into France with a view to acclimatize and breed them for the sake of their wool, but the enterprise failed. A few were purchased and brought over to England by Mr C. T. Tower, who, by careful treatment, so far succeeded with them that, in course of time, he had a shawl made from their fleece, which turned out to be of good quality. At the death of the owner some years later, the heid, which had then deteriorated through in-breeding, was presented to the Queen and placed in Windsor Park.

The Nubian Goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt, and Abyssinia, differs greatly in appearance from all those previously described. The coat is in the female extremely short, almost like that of a race-horse, and the legs are very long. This breed therefore stands considerably higher than the common goat. One of its peculiarities is the strongly convex shape of the face, the forehead being very prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose itself extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper. The ears are long, broad, and thin, and hang down by the side of the head like a "double lop" rabbit. The horns are quite black, slightly twisted, and very short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips, and recumbent on the head. But

little was known of this breed in Europe-in the West at least-until some ten or twelve years ago, when some were imported into France by the Société d'Acclimatation of Paris, who found its milking qualities to surpass those of all other breeds. Among the goats that are met with in England a good many show unmistakable signs of a more or less remote cross with this breed, derived probably from specimens brought from the East on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage. It is no doubt on this account that they often go by the name of "Indian" goats.

The Nepaul Goat appears to be a variety of the last breed, it having the same arched facial line, pendulous ears, and long legs. The horns, however, are more spiral. The colour of the hair, which is longer than in the Nubian, is black, grey, or white, with black blotches.