probably most completely master of the soil in the Hirpine district, and most mingled with others in Umbria, at that epoch or later.

Now it is clear that this suffix was the one natural to the Romans, who used it not merely in their own names (Romani, Latini, &c.), but also to form names, after the Roman fashion, for the peoples they conquered in Italy or abroad: the Nearoλirai became Neapolitani, the Enapriarai became Spartani, and so on. But this suffix was not used by Romans only; the Campanians of Nola called themselves Novlanos, and in fact the suffix, as we have seen in the case of the Hirpini, was spread over the whole area in which the dialect called Oscan was spoken, as well as being common in the Latinian districts.

iii. The suffix -(A)TI- is enormously more frequent in the -CO- districts than elsewhere, though not entirely confined to them. In Umbria it forms nearly 60 per cent. of the known ethnica, and here it has been superimposed upon -NO-, the Iguvini becoming later on Iguvinates, &c. It seems to mark the -CO- people at a later epoch.

Combining these data with further linguistic evidence, with that of tradition and of archæological excavations, we can demonstrate

i. That the -CO. folk inhabited Central Italy before the invasion of the (Asiatic) Etruscans and became their subject-allies. There is evidence that they were ignorant of iron, buried their dead, and differed in other ways from the -NO-folk, e.g. by counting kinship through the mother (Professor Ridgeway).

ii. That the -NO- folk were descending into Italy from the Alps (Val Sabbia) when their progress was interrupted by the Etruscans, who with their subjects cut off the Romani and Sabini from the Iguvini, who remained in the upper Tiber valley. From the Sabines sprang the Samnites at a later date. It seems certain that these people brought iron into Italy and buried the dead, and probable that they formed the patrician class at Rome.

Especial interest attaches to this distinction of two strata in the early IndoEuropean population of Italy because the oldest and most striking linguistic change which marks off the -CO- folk seems to be that of Q to P (Volscian pis

Latin quis 1). Now this same change, as is well known, separates the later from the earlier Keltic dialects of the British Isles, Goidelic, i.e. Gaelic and Irish, having kept the original guttural, for which Brythonic, i.e. Welsh, Breton, &c., substituted P (Scotch Mac - Welsh [M]Ap). The Keltic languages are the next congeners to Italic, and the dates to which archeologists ascribe the two Keltic invasions of Britain are not remote from that at which the Samnites overran Southern Italy. Were the movements the result of some one cause in Central Europe?

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7. The Origin of Jewellery. By Professor W. RIDGEWAY.

Personal ornaments in civilised countries consist of precious metals, stones, or imitations of stones, pearls (which are the product of shells), or shells themselves, amber, jet, and occasionally various other objects, such as tigers' claws, &c. It has hitherto been held that men and women were led by purely aesthetic considerations to adorn themselves with such objects; but a little research into the history of such ornaments leads to a very different conclusion. The fact is that mankind was led to wear such objects by magic rather than by æsthetic considerations. The jewellery of primitive peoples consists of small stones with natural perforations, e.g., silicified sponges or joints of coniferæ, or of substances easily perforated, such as amber, the seeds of plants, shells, the teeth and claws of animals, bones, or pieces of bone, and pieces of wood of peculiar kinds. Later on they learn to bore hard stones, such as rock crystal, hematite, agate, garnet, &c., and obtain the metals.

1 The Samnite change of y top appears to me to have happened at a recent date, and under certain conditions not to have happened at all.

? To be published in full in Journ, Anthr. Inst. xxxiv,

All peoples value for magical purposes small stones of peculiar form or colour long before they can wear them as ornaments; e.g. Australians and tribes of New Guinea use crystals for rain-making, although they cannot bore them, and it is a powerful amulet in Uganda fastened into leather. Sorcerers in Africa carry a small bag of pebbles as an important part of their equipment. So was it in Greece. The crystal was used to light sacrificial fire, and was so employed in the Church down to the fifteenth century. The Egyptians under the twelfth dynasty used it largely, piercing it along its axis after rubbing off the pyramidal points of the crystal, sometimes leaving the natural six sides, or else grinding it into a complete cylinder. From this bead came the artificial cylindrical beads made later by the Egyptian, from which modern cylindrical glass beads are descended.

The beryl, a natural bexagonal prism, lent itself still more readily to the same form, e.g. the cylindrical beryl beads found in Rhodian tombs. The Babylonian cylinders found without any engraving on them on the wrists of the dead in early Babylonian graves had a similar origin. It has been universally held that Babylonian cylinders, Egyptian scarabs, and Mycenean gems were primarily signets; but as the cylinders are found unengraved, and as many as 500 scarabs are found on one mummy, and as Mycenean stones are often found without any engraving, it is clear that the primary use was not for signets but for amulets. The Orphic Lithica gives a clear account of the special virtue of each stone, and it is plain that they acted chiefly by sympathetic magic; e.g. green jasper and tree agates make the vegetation grow, &c. The Greeks and Asiatics used stones primarily as amulets, e.g. Mithridates had a whole cabinet of gems as antidotes to poison. To enhance the natural power of the stone a device was cut on it, e.g. the Abraxas cut on a green jasper, the special amulet of the Gnostics. The use of the stone for sealing was simply secondary, and may have arisen first for sacred purposes.1 Shells are worn as amulets by modern savages, e.g. cowries in Africa, where these or some other kind of shells were worn in Strabo's time to keep off the evil eye.

Red coral was a potent amulet worn by travellers by sea, as at the present day in Mediterranean lands, and if pounded up it kept red rust from corn. Pearls are a potent medicine in modern China. Seeds of plants are medicine everywhere; for example, the ratti (Abrus precatoria) is used in India for rosaries, and also in Africa; the seed of wild banana is especially valued in Uganda, &c. The claws of lions are worn as amulets all through Africa, and are great medicine,' and imitations of them are made. So with teeth of jackals, which are imitated in wood if the real ones are not to be had, and boars' tusks in New Guinea. When gold becomes first known it is regarded exactly like the stones mentioned. Thus the Debæ, an Arab tribe, who did not work gold, but had abundance in their land, used only the nuggets, stringing them for necklaces alternately with perforated stones. Magnetic iron and hematite were especially prized, the power of attraction in magnetic iron, as in the case of amber, causing a belief that there was a living spirit within. Hence iron in general was regarded with peculiar veneration, and not because it was a newer metal, as is commonly stated.

It is thus clear that the use of all the objects still employed in modern jewellery has primarily arisen from the magical powers attributed to them, by which they were thought to protect the wearer.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on Archæological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.-See Reports, p. 402.

2. Excavations at Knossos in Crete. By A. J. EVANS, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.S. See Reports, p. 402.

3. Exploration in the East of Crete. By R. C. BOSANQUET, M.A.

The fourth Cretan campaign of the British School at Athens lasted from March to June 1903. The headquarters of the expedition were again at Palæokastro on the east coast. The work done may be summarised as follows:

1. The excavation of the settlement discovered last year at Roussolakkos was continued with the help of Mr. M. N. Tod and Mr. R. M. Dawkins. It proves to be a considerable town, regularly laid out in streets and blocks. The streets are narrow, from 5 to 12 feet wide, well paved, with a raised footpath at one side and a deep gutter at the other. One main street has been cleared for over 150 yards. Each block has a frontage of from 120 to 180 feet, and contains three or more houses. The general plan of the town and parts of the houses date from the latter part of the Kamáres period, but there was extensive rebuilding during the Mycenaean period. House-fronts in ashlar masonry, bath-rooms, drainage arrangements, and a great variety of domestic utensils, indicate widespread prosperity and comfort. The inhabitants had wheat and peas; they made oil and probably wine. They imported obsidian from Melos, green porphyry from the Peloponnese, and liparite from the Lipari Islands. Their wealth was probably derived from trade with Egypt.

Marine designs, such as rocks, corals and seaweed, shells and cuttlefish, predominate on the Mycenaean vases found this year. The yield of pottery was exceptionally large; Mr. C. T. Currelly has made coloured drawings of the finer specimens.

2. The ossuaries outside the town were further excavated by Mr. W. L. H. Duckworth, whose report on the skulls and bones from them was read on Thursday.

3. The surrounding region was explored. A pre-Mycenaean sanctuary was discovered on the hill of Petsofa, above the town, and remains of an equally early purple-factory on the island of Koufonisi; the former will be described by Mr. J. L. Myres, the latter by Mr. Bosanquet; Mr. C. T. Currelly took part in both investigations. Caves and rock-shelters were examined in the limestone plateau of the interior, and a Mycenaean farmstead was excavated at Kouraméno.

4. The physical characteristics of the present population were studied by Mr. Duckworth, and their dialect by Mr. Dawkins.

4. An Early Purple-fishery.1 By R. C. BOSANQUet, M.A.

Leuke, the White Isle' (modern Kouphonisi), off the south-east coast of Crete, was an important fishing-station in antiquity. The tithes levied on the catch of fish and of purple-shell, mentioned in an inscription of about 350 B.C., must have been very profitable, for the possession of the island was the subject of a long and bitter dispute among three neighbouring cities.

Last May the island was explored by Mr. C. T. Currelly and the writer. Among sand-hills on the north shore they found a bank of shells, some whole but mostly crushed, of the variety Murex trunculus, which is known to have been used in the manufacture of the purple dye. Scattered through the heap were fragments of pottery and of a stratile bowl which marked it as not only præ-Hellenic but præ-Phoenician. Further digging within a few yards of the heap brought to light characteristic Cretan vases of the Kamáres type and the foundations of a house. The evidence shows that the extraction of the purple-juice was practised in

To be published more fully in the Annual of the British School of Archæology at Athens, ix. 1903. 3 d

Crete at least as early as 1600 B.C. Hitherto the Phoenicians have been credited with the discovery of Tyrian purple.' It appears, however, that in this matter, as in the art of writing and perhaps in other inventions attributed to the Phonicians by Greek authors, the Minoans of Crete were the real pioneers.

5. On a pre-Mycenaan Sanctuary with Votive Terracottas at Palæokastro, in Eastern Crete. By JOHN L. MYRES, M.A.

This sanctuary stands on the summit of the hill called Petsofà, which bounds the bay of Palæokastro southward, and was excavated in April 1903. A massive retaining wall of large rudely shaped blocks incloses, on south and west, a roughly rectangular space, the northern face of which is bounded by a precipitous descent, and the eastern face by low ridges of natural rock.

Within the inclosure were found (from the bottom upwards) (1) a layer of undisturbed soil resting on the southward-shelving rock surface; (2) a layer of blackened ashy earth, apparently the remains of a large hearth or bonfire, full of whole and broken terracotta figurines, with painting of the Minoan (preMycenaean) technique; (3) a layer of disturbed soil obliterating the ashy layer and containing fragments of its figurines; (4) over all a rubble building of early Mycenaean date, like those of the settlement-site at Palæokastro, one room of which still retained its plastered and whitewashed floor, with a plastered bench round three sides, and the remains of a door. A column-base from an earlier building was found built into its foundations.

The terracottas include figures of men and women in characteristic preMycenaean costume, analogous to that shown on the frescoes at Knossos, and completed in the case of the women by gigantic and very stylish hats; a quite new feature. Other terracottas represented miniature oxen, rams, goats, pigs, dogs, weasels, hedgehogs, birds, chairs, miniature vases, and other objects of daily use, together with the horns and legs of a larger series of oxen, the bodies of which appear to have been completely cleared away from the ash-heap from time to time. A very large number of quite plain clay balls, of about the size of a marble, seem to be votive like the other offerings, but are not so easily explained; they may, however, represent occasions of prayer or thanksgiving which defied the ingenuity of the modeller.

6. The Temples of Abydos.3

By Professor W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

After Mariette had worked on the ground of the Osiris temple at Abydos he declared that nothing remained of the old temple, that even the foundations had been destroyed to the roots, and that any further research was impossible. From that very ground, the work of the past winter has produced foundations of ten successive periods of the temple, one below the other, occupying nearly 20 feet depth of soil. The examination and recording of these buildings has required over four thousand measurements and one thousand levellings. The highest temple was of Amasis (XXVI. dynasty), then Rameses III. (XX. dynasty), then Amenhotep III., Thothmes III., and Amenhotep I. (XVIII. dynasty); then Sebekhotep III. and Usertesen I. (XIII.-XII. dynasty), then Sankhkara (XI. dynasty), then Mentuhotep III. (XI. dynasty), then Pepy (VI. dynasty), then the temple of the fourth dynasty, below that of the second, and at the base of all the oldest temple of the first dynasty. Thus the site was continually re-used during four thousand years, each of these periods of building followed entirely different lines, and the successive plans had scarcely any relation one to another.

1 To be published in full in Ann. Brit. School. Athens, ix.

2 E.g., Ann. Brit. School. Athens, vol. viii. p. 311, fig. 24.

Published in full in the author's Abydos, I., II. (Egypt Exploration Fund).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

The principal results are in the first dynasty. The school of fine ivory carving at that time shows work equal to any that succeeded it in later history. The appreciation of form, the delicacy of the muscular curves, and the power of expression is as good as in the best classical or renaissance carvings. The art of glazing was applied to large wall-tiles, used for covering brick walls, and to vases, as shown by part of a large vase with the name of Menes. The use of two-colour glazes, a purple inlay in green, appears in the name of Menes. Hence glazing was as advanced at the beginning of the first dynasty, about 4700 B.C., as it was for three thousand years later, until the polychrome glazes of the eighteenth dynasty.

The European relations of Egypt are further illustrated by finding the same black pottery in the first dynasty that is known in Crete as late neolithic. The camel is shown in the first dynasty by a well-modelled head; hitherto it was not proved to have been in Egypt till about four thousand years later.

The

In the well-known age of the fourth dynasty we have for the first time the portrait of the best known of all the kings, Cheops or Khufu, whose appearance, however, was as yet quite unknown. A minutely carved ivory figure, the face of which is only inch high, shows his character in an astonishing manner. energy, decision, and driving power is perhaps stronger than in any other portrait that we know. The tradition of his closing the temples and forbidding sacrifices is fully confirmed by finding that no large temple existed in the fourth dynasty, such as those of the earlier or later times; only a bed of vegetable ashes is found in a cell, and throughout it hundreds of clay fictilia as substitutes for sacrifices, not a single bone of an animal occurring in the whole mass.

The worship in the temple of Abydos was originally that of the jackal god Up-uatu, the opener of ways,' who showed the paths in the desert for the souls Osiris does not appear in any temple inscription for two thouto go to the west. sand years, and is not prominent till yet later. Some large decrees of the fifth and This site has fully shown how sixth dynasties were found; and the oldest piece of certainly dated iron, apparently a wedge, of the sixth dynasty, about 3400 B.C. important it is to dissect minutely a temple site in which only earth remains, and where at first the absence of stone walls might lead to the idea that nothing was left there; the art of the beginning of the Egyptian monarchy lay hidden in that ground.

7. The Beginning of the Egyptian Kingdom.

By Professor W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

For generations past the origins of Egyptian civilisation had been a mystery ; the earliest period there known, the pyramid times, showed a very high civilisation, and its rise was entirely unknown. In the past ten years most of the stages which led from a savage state up to the highest development have been brought to light. The discovery of the prehistoric age and its division into regular sequences of remains has filled up a period of over two thousand years, whichbeginning with men in goatskins with the simplest pottery-ran through a wealthy and elaborate age of civilisation, and was in decadence when it was overthrown by the dynastic Egyptians. Of the five different types of man before the dynasties, portraits of which were published two years ago, the fifth type, with the forward beard, is from the monuments shown to be Libyan, and thus easily connected with the same type in early Greece.

The rise of the dynastic power has been brought to light in the remains of the royal tombs of the first and second dynasties, and some probably before the first dynasty, excavated at Abydos in 1900 and 1901. The connection of the close of the prehistoric scale of sequence with the early kings has been closely settled by the pottery, and its history shown in the stratified ruins of the earliest town of Abydos; so that we pass without a break from the sequence dates of the prehistoric age to the historic reigns of the kings. Four kings' names are found which, from the nature of their remains and their tombs, appear to belong to the dynasty of ten kings which preceded Menes, the first king of all Egypt.

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