with observing that every thing which we see in the world has had a beginning; that whatever has had a beginning, must have had a prior cause; that in human productions, art shown in the effect, necessarily infers design in the cause: and proceeds leading you on from one cause to another, till you arrive at one supreme first cause, from whom are derived all the order and design visible in his works.

Obs. This is much the same with the Socratic method, by which that philosopher silenced the Sophists of his age. It is a very artful method of reasoning; may be carried on with much beauty, and is proper to be used when the hearers are much prejudiced against any truth, and by imperceptible steps must be led to conviction. But there are few subjects that will admit this method, and not many occasions on which it is proper to be employed.

503. The mode of reasoning most generally used, and most suited to the train of popular speaking, is what is called the synthetic; when the point to be proved is fairly laid down, and one argument after another is made to bear upon it, till the hearers be fully convinced.

Illus. Now, in all arguing, one of the first things to be attended to, is, among the various arguments which may occur upon a cause, to make a proper selection of such as appear to one's self the most solid; and to employ these as the chief means of persuasion. Every speaker should place himself in the situation of a hearer, and think how he would be affected by those reasons, which he purposes to employ for persuading others. For he must not expect to impose on mankind by mere arts of speech. They are not so easily imposed on, as public speakers are sometimes apt to think. Shrewdness and sagacity are found among all ranks; and the speaker may be praised for his fine discourse, while the hearers are not yet persuaded of the truth of any one thing he has uttered.

504. Supposing the arguments properly chosen, it is evident that their effect will, in some measure, depend on the right arrangement of them; so as they shall not justle and embarrass one another, but give mutual aid; and bear with the fairest and fullest direction on the point in view. cerning this, the following rules may be taken :

Con

505. In the first place, avoid blending arguments confusedly together, that are of a separate nature. All arguments whatever are directed to prove one or other of these three things: first, that something is true; secondly, that it is morally right or fit; or thirdly, that it is profitable and good.

506. These make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind; truth, duty, and interest. But the arguments directed towards any one of them are generically distinct; and he who blends them all under one topic, which he calls his argument, as, in sermons especially, is too often done, will render his reasoning indistinct and inelegant.

Illus. Suppose, for instance, that you are recommending to an audience benevolence, or the love of our neighbour; and that you take your first argument from the inward satisfaction which a benevolent temper affords; your second, from the obligation which the example of Christ lays upon you to this duty; and your third, from its tendency to procure us the good-will of all around us; your arguments are good, but you have arranged them wrong for your first and third arguments are taken from considerations of interest, internal peace, and external advantages; and between these, you have introduced one, which rests wholly upon duty. You should have kept those classes of arguments, which are addressed to different principles in human nature, separate and distinct.

507. In the second place, with regard to the different degrees of strength in arguments, the general rule is, to advance in the way of climax, "ut augeatur semper, et increscat oratio."

Obs. 1. This especially is to be the course, when the speaker has a clear cause, and is confident that he can prove it fully. He may then adventure to begin with feebler arguments; rising gradually, and not putting forth his whole strength till the last, when he can trust to his making a successful impression on the minds of his hearers, prepared by what has gone before.

2. But this rule is not to be always followed. For, if he distrusts his cause, and has but one material argument on which to lay the stress, putting less confidence in the rest, in this case, it is often proper for him to place this material argument in the front; to pre-occupy the hearers early, and make the strongest effort at first: that, having removed prejudices, and disposed his hearers to be favourable, the rest of his reasoning may be listened to with more candour. When it happens, that amidst a variety of arguments, there are some which we are sensible are more inconclusive than the rest, and yet proper to be used, Cicero advises to place these in the middle, as a station less conspicuous than either the beginning, or the end, of the train of reasoning.

508. In the third place, when our arguments are strong and satisfactory, the more they are distinguished and treated apart from each other, the better. Each can then bear to be brought out by itself, placed in its full light, amplified and rested upon. But when our arguments are doubtful, and only of the presumptive kind, it is safer to throw them together in a crowd, and to run them into one another; that though infirm of themselves, they may serve mutually to prop each other.

509. In the fourth place, we must observe not to extend arguments too far, and multiply them too much. If we do, we rather render our cause suspected, than give it weight. An unnecessary multiplicity of arguments both burdens the memory, and detracts from the weight of that conviction which a few well-chosen arguments carry.

Obs. It is to be observed too, that in the amplification of arguments,

a diffuse and spreading method, beyond the bounds of reasonable illustration, is always enfeebling. It takes off greatly from that strength and sharpness which should be the distinguishing character of the argumentative part of a discourse. When a speaker dwells long on a favourite argument, and seeks to turn it into every possible light, it almost always happens, that, fatigued with the effort, he loses the spirit with which he set out, and concludes with feebleness what he began with force. There is a proper temperance in reasoning, as there is in other parts of a discourse.

510. After due attention given to the proper arrangement of arguments, what is next requisite for their success, is, to express them in such a style, and to deliver them in such a manner, as shall give them full force.

511. We now proceed to another essential part of discourse, which was mentioned as the fifth in order, that is, the PATHETIC; in which, if any where, eloquence reigns, and exerts its power.

512. On the head of the pathetic, the following directions may be found useful.

513. The first is to consider carefully, whether the subject admit the pathetic, and render it proper; and if it does, what part of the discourse is the most proper for attempting it.

Obs. 1. To determine these points belongs to good sense; for it is evident, that there are many subjects which admit not the pathetic at all, and that even in those that are susceptible of it, an attempt to excite the passions in the wrong place, may expose an orator to ridicule. All that can be said in general is, that if we expect any emotion which we raise to have a lasting effect, we must be careful to bring over to our side, in the first place, the understanding and judgment.

2. The hearers must be convinced that there are good and sufficient grounds for their entering with warmth into the cause. They must be able to justify to themselves the passion which they feel; and remain satisfied that they are not carried away by mere delusion.

3. Unless their minds be brought into this state, although they may have been heated by the orator's discourse, yet, as soon as he ceases to speak, they will resume their ordinary tone of thought; and the emotion which he has raised will produce no effect.

4. Hence most writers assign the pathetic to the peroration or conclusion, as its natural place; and, no doubt, all other things being equal, this is the impression that one would chuse to make last, leav ing the minds of the hearers warmed with the subject, after argument and reasoning had produced their full effect: but wherever it is introduced, observe,

514. In the second place, never to set apart a head of a discourse in form, for raising any passion; never give warning that you are about to be pathetic; and call upon your hearers, as is sometimes done, to follow you in the attempt. This almost never fails to prove a refrigerant to passion. It

puts the hearers immdiately on their guard, and disposes them for criticising, much more than for being moved.

Obs. The indirect method of making an impression is likely to be more successful, when you seize the critical moment that is favourable to emotion, in whatever part of the discourse it occurs, and then, after due preparation, throw in such circumstances, and present such glowing images, as may kindle their passions before they are aware. This can often be done more happily, in a few sentences inspired by natural warmth, than in a long and studied address.

515. In the third place, it is necessary to observe, that there is a great difference between showing the hearers that they ought to be moved, and actually moving them.

Illus. To every emotion or passion, nature has adapted a set of corresponding objects; and, without setting these before the mind, it is not in the power of any orator to raise that emotion. I am warmed with gratitude, I am touched with compassion, not when a speaker shows me that these are noble dispositions, and that it is my duty to feel them; or when he exclaims against me for my indifference and coldness. All this time, he is speaking only to my reason or conscience. He must describe the kindness and tenderness of my friend; he must set before me the distress suffered by the person for whom he would interest me; then, and not till then, my heart begins to be touched, my gratitude or my compassion begins to flow.

Scholium. The foundation, therefore, of all successive execution in the way of pathetic oratory is, to paint the object of that passion which we wish to raise, in the most natural and striking manner; to describe this object with such circumstances as are likely to awaken in the minds of others the passion which we wish to raise. Every passion is most strongly excited by sensation; as anger by the feeling of an injury, or the presence of the injurer. Next to the influence of sense, is that of memory; and next to memory, is the influence of the imagination. Of this power, therefore, the orator must avail himself, so as to strike the imagination of the hearers with circumstances which, in lustre and steadiness, resemble those of sensation and remembrance. In order to accomplish this,

516. In the fourth place, the only effectual method is, to be moved yourselves. There are a thousand interesting circumstances suggested by real passion, which no art can imitate, and no refinement can supply. There is obviously a contagion among the passions.

Obs. The internal emotion of the speaker adds a pathos to his words, his looks, his gestures, and his whole manner, which exerts a power almost irresistible over those who hear him. But on this point, though the most material of all, we shall not insist, as all attempts towards becoming pathetic, when we are not moved ourselves, expose us to certain ridicule.

517. In the fifth place, it is necessary to attend to the proper language of the passions. We should observe in what manner any one expresses himself who is under the

power of a real and a strong passion; and we shall always find his language unaffected and simple.

Illus. 1. It may be animated, indeed, with bold and strong figures, but it will have no ornament or finery. He is not at leisure to follow out the play of imagination. His mind being wholly seized by one ob ject, which has heated it, he has no other aim, but to represent that in all its circumstances, as strongly as he feels it.

2. This must be the style of the orator when he would be pathetic ; and this will be his style, if he speaks from real feeling; bold, ardent, simple. No sort of description will then succeed, but what is written "fervente calamo." If he stay till he can work up his style, and polish and adorn it, he will infallibly cool his own ardour; and then he will touch the heart no more. His composition will become frigid; it will be the language of one who describes, but who does not feel.

3. We must take notice, that there is a great difference between painting to the imagination, and painting to the heart. The one may be done coolly and at leisure: the other must always be rapid and ardent. In the former, art and labour may be suffered to appear; in the latter, no effect can follow, unless it seem to be the work of nature only. 518. In the sixth place, avoid interweaving any thing of a foreign nature with the pathetic part of a discourse.

Obs. 1. Beware of all digressions, which may interrupt or turn aside the natural course of the passion, when once it begins to rise and swell. 2. Sacrifice all beauties, however bright and showy, which would divert the mind from the principal object, and which would amuse the imagination, rather than touch the heart.

3. Hence comparisons are always dangerous, and generally quite improper, in the midst of passion.

4. Beware even of reasoning unseasonably; or at least, of carrying on a long and subtile train of reasoning, on occasions when the principal aim is to excite warm emotions.

519. In the last place, never attempt prolonging the pathetic too much. Warm emotions are too violent to be lasting. Study the proper time of making a retreat; of making a transition from the passionate to the calm tone; in such a manner, however, as to descend without falling, by keeping up the same strain of sentiment that was carried on before, though now expressing it with more moderation.

Obs. Above all things, beware of straining passion too far; of attempting to raise it to unnatural heights. Preserve always a due regard to what the hearers will bear; and remember, that he who stops not at the proper point; who attempts to carry them farther, in passion, than they will follow him, destroys his whole design. By endeav ouring to warm them too much, he takes the most effectual method of freezing them completely.

520, Concerning the PERORATION OR CONCLUSION, it is needless to say much, because it must vary so considerably, according to the strain of the preceding discourse.

Obs. 1. Sometimes the whole pathetic part comes in most properly