68. Tenses and moods, in the Greek and Latin languages, are generally discriminated by different inflexions of the verb; in the modern languages they are chiefly denoted by AUXILIARIES.

Illus. 1. The auxiliaries of the indicative mood are, have, had, shall, will.

Have and had mark time; the former denoting that the action is finished just now; the latter that some interval has elapsed since it was completed.

Shall and will express futurity, but with it some affection or disposition of the agent. Thus, in the first person, shall barely foretells, or predicts performance; as, I shall walk; "hereafter I am to perform the action of walking." Will implies promise or engagement; I will walk; "I am determined hereafter to walk," In the second and third persons, these auxiliaries exchange their additional significations; and shall denotes promise or engagement; as, thou shalt read: will expresses futurity; as, he will run: that is to say, according to promise or engagement, "thou shalt read ;" and "he will hereafter run."

2. The auxiliaries of the PRESENT of the subjunctive are may and can; and of the PERFECT, might, could, would, should.

May and can denote capacity or ability; as, I muy write, I can read. Might and could, express the perfect time of may and can; and like them are significant of ability or capacity; but the execution depends on circumstances which have not yet come into existence. Thus, "I might see him," and "I could tell him," express that my capacity to see and tell him is complete, and I only wait for an opportunity to put it in action.

Would denotes inclination, should obligation, but the performance hangs upon some incident, or power, not under the controul of the agent; as, "I would read, if I had a book;" "I should walk, if I had leave."

3. The auxiliary to be, usually called a substantive verb, because it is confined to the signification of existence only, is generally and nat. urally an auxiliary of the passive form of the verb. In this case it is always attended with the perfect participle of the same form; as, “I am loved,"-"I have been loved,"-" I shall be loved." But added to the present participle of the active form, and supported by the other auxiliaries, there is not a mood or tense of the active form of the verb, which to be may not denote; as, "I am loving,"—"I may be loving, "Be thou loving,"-" To be loving," are expressions equivalent to, 1 love, I may love, love thou, to love.

69. The INFINITIVE MOOD requires no agent to be prefixed or understood in the form of a nominative. The infinitive, thus disengaged from all connexion with person or number, and significant of action in general, without consid-eration of any agent, approaches the nature of a substantive noun, and in all languages is frequently substituted in its place. The infinitive farther, used as a substantive, is nearly equivalent to the present participle, employed in the

same manner.

Example. Thus, to hear, is nothing more than the action of hearing, and every such participle, in English, may be converted into a substantive, by prefixing one of the articles, the usual characteristics of substantives. (Art. 57.)

Obs. 1. The occasions on which it is requisite to express action ithout reference to any agent, are very numerous, and the use of the infinitive is, of course, very frequent. Its relation to the other moods is similar to that of abstract substantives to the adjectives from which they are formed; as, goodness from "good." (Art. 59. Obs. 2.) But good denotes a quality inherent in the particular substance to which it is applied; and goodness expresses a quality common to all the substantives to which it is competent to apply the adjective.

2. In like manner, the finite moods exhibit always some action, performed by an agent, either specified or understood, as the nominative to the verb. The infinitive denotes the action, without reference to any particular agent; but the action is practicable only by the agents who may be made nominatives to the finite moods.

Thus, as goodness denotes a quality common to all objects that are good; so to read denotes an action which can be performed by all agents who have learned letters.

3. The infinitive also, like the participle, retains so much of its verbal quality, in denoting action, as to be susceptible of time; and it possesses variations to express the three great divisions of past, present, and future. It seldom, however, introduces a sentence, but depends most commonly on some verb that precedes it; hence, the time which it assumes, is to be reckoned from that of the antecedent verb.

4. Taking, then, the time of the antecedent verb, as fixed point, in computing the time of the infinitive, we employ the present, the past, or the future tense, according as the action which it denotes happens to be the same, of prior, or of posterior time, to that of the antecedent verb; as, "I am happy to see him,"-"I am happy to have seen him," "I am happy to be about to see him."

70. OF THE ADVERB. The chief use of the adverb, as its name imports, is to modify the verb. The circumstances of action, expressed by tenses and moods, are all of a nature too general, to be sufficient for the purposes of communication. It is often necessary to be much more particular in ascertaining both the time and the manner, but particularly the place of the action. The important office of the adverb, is to accomplish these ends.

Illus. 1. Though tenses display a great degree of ingenuity in their formation, they rarely descend farther than to denote performance in past, present, or future time. But we find it necessary to be often much more minute, and to signify whether the action was done yesterday, lately, long ago; or is to be done now, immediately, instantly; or will be done quickly, presently, hereafter; or will be repeated often, seldom, daily, once, twice, thrice.

2. All the circumstances communicated by moods are of a very general nature. The indicative expresses performance only; the subjunctive and imperative denote bare intention or disposition; while the infinitive scarcely descends farther than the name of the action, without specifying its nature.

3: The very varied and numerous situations of society, demanded the signification of many eircumstances of action much more particular; and to express these, a large class of adverbs was devised.

These adverbs indicate quality and manner, either simply, as wisely, prudently, cautiously; or positively, as truly, certainly, unquestionably; or contingently, as perhaps, probably, possibly; or negatively, as no, not, erroneously; or conjointly, as together, generally, universally; or separately, as apart, solely, solitarily. Sometimes they denote magnitude, as wholly, altogether, exceedingly; or comparison, as preferable ; or passion, as angrily, lovingly, furiously, valiantly; or merit, as learnedly, prudently, industriously.

4. The circumstances of action relative to place are imparted by another copious class of adverbs. The principal views which they exhibit are, whether the action is performed in a place, or in moving to it, through it, or from it. Of the first sort are here, there, where, within, without, of the second, hither, thither, and the compounds of the syllable ward, as toward, forward, backward, upward, downward; of the third, nowhere, elsewhere, everywhere; of the fourth, hence, whence, thence.

5. Of the adverbs which signify time and manner, two, one from each class, often attend on the same verb, by an analogy similar to the appearance of every verb, both in a tense and a mode, on the same occasion. The adverb significant of time is generally placed before the verb, and after it is placed the adverb significant of manner. That which precedes circumscribes the time expressed by the tense, and that which follows limits the manner expressed by the mood.

6. Adverbs are susceptible of comparison, sometimes regular, as soon, sooner, svonest; but oftener irregular, as readily, more readily, most readily. One adverb is frequently employed to qualify another, as too confidently, very seldom. And, finally, they are often applied to circumscribe adjectives, as unmercifully severe, highly criminal, superbatively excellent.

71. PREPOSITIONS are words prefixed to substantives, to denote the various relations which they bear to one another.

Illus. In English they are generally monosyllabic words, chiefly employed to supply the deficiency of the inflections commonly called cases. But in the Welsh language they undergo inflection with the cases of nouns. In English they occasionally lend their aid to furnish compounded verbs, as foretell, undervalue; and in all cases they act as proportional ingredients of composition, by adding to it the full import of their powers.

72. CONJUNCTIONS are used to connect single substantives, clauses of sentences, or members of periods.

Illus. Conjunctions are divided into various classes, copulative, disjunctive, and adversitive; but their most useful distinction relates to. the correspondence which they have to one another in different clauses or members of a period; and in the right management of which, both the perspicuity and propriety of language are not a little concerned.

Obs. We sometimes find pronouns connecting sentences as well as

conjunctions; and the latter not unfrequently, by a violent ellipsis, performing the substantive office of the former; but in this case the "Let conjunction is usually connected with an indefinite relative, as such as presume," for "Let them who presume."

73. INTERJECTIONS indicate those impressions which so suddenly and violently affect the mind of the speaker or writer, as to burst asunder the regular train of his thoughts and expressions, and thence demand immediate

utterance.

Obs. This definition demonstrates that the proper use of these words must be extremely limited; and experience proves that the incidents which excite such vehement agitation are not very common. (Art. 4. Corol.)

Illus. Interjections are sparingly used even in the glowing and animated languages of antiquity; and they appear less seldom with grace, in the more tame and phlegmatic tongues of modern times. They rarely occur with us but when they interrupt, not language, but silence; and there are few persons who court those seasons of high passion when their sentiments are too violent for communication by words, and with difficulty admit utterance, at intervals, by sighs and groans.

CHAPTER II.

THE NATURE AND CHARACTER OF THE USE WHICH GIVES LAW TO LANGUAGE.

74. ELOQUENCE has a particular connexion with language, as its intention is to convey our sentiments into the minds of others, in order to produce upon them a determinate effect; and language is the only vehicle by which this conveyance can be made.

Corol. The art of speaking, then, is not less necessary to the orator than the art of thinking. Without the latter the former could not have existed. Without the former, the latter would be ineffectual. And the operations of the latter go on by means of words, for there is no evidence that we think without language.

75. LANGUAGE is mainly a species of fashion,* in which, by the general but tacit consent of the people of a particular state or country, certain sounds come to be appropriated to certain things, as their signs, and certain ways of inflecting and combining those sounds come to be established, as denoting the relations which subsist among the things signified. (Chap. I. Book I. and Chap. I. Book II.)

Illus. 1. The philosophical view which we have taken of the chief Campbell Phil. of Rhet. b. ii. c. 1.

principles and component parts of speech, (Art. 48. Obs.) shew us plainly it is not the business of grammar to give law to the fashions which regulate our speech. From its conformity to these it derives its authority and value.

2. Grammar, therefore, is nothing else than a collection of general observations methodically digested, and comprising all the modes previously and independently established, by which the significations, derivations, and combinations of words in that language, are ascertained. For, these modes and fashions have no sooner obtained and become general, than they are the laws of the language, and the grammarian's only business is, to note, collect, and methodize them.

3. But this truth concerns alike those comprehensive analogies and rules, which affect whole classes of words, and every individual word, in the inflecting or combining of which, a particular mode hath prevailed.

Corol. Hence, every single anomaly, though departing from the rule assigned to the other words of the same class, and on that account called an exception, stands on the same basis, on which the rules of the tongue are founded, custom having prescribed for it a separate rule. (Art. 52 and 53.)

76. Use or the custom of speaking, is, then, the sole original standard of conversation, as far as respects the expression; and the custom of writing is the chief standard of style. (Art. 86. Illus.)

Corol. In every grammatical controversy, we are, consequently, as a last resort, entitled to appeal from the laws and the decisions of the grammarians, to the tribunal of use, as to the supreme authority. (Art.. 79. Illus.)

Obs. 1. The conduct of our ablest grammarians proves that this or.. der of subordination ought never, on any account, to be reversed.

2. But if use be of such consequence in this matter, before advanc ing any farther, let us endeavour to ascertain precisely what it is, as it would otherwise be erroneous to agree about the name, while we differ ed about the notion that we assigned to it.

77. REPUTABLE USE, Sometimes called general use, implies, not only currency but vogue, and may be defined, whatever modes of speech are authorised as good by the writings of a great number, if not the majority of celebrated authors: it is properly reputable custom. (Art. 80. Illus. and 86. Obs. 2.)

Illus. The good use of language has the approbation of those who have not themselves attained it. It is the fate of those who, by reason of their poverty and other circumstances, are deprived of the advantages of education, to hear words of which they know not the meaning, and consequently to produce and misapply them. An affectation of imitating their superiors, is, then, the great source of those errors of the illiterate, in respect of conversation and the application of words, which are beyond their sphere.

78. VULGARISMs are those terms and phrases which, notwithstanding a pretty uniform and extensive use, are con