140. If two or more leading thoughts or agents, which have no natural relation to one another, nor any dependence on one another, and which concur not in pointing toward any one object, are introduced into a sentence, they will destroy its unity. This is a frequent and gross error in the structure of sentences.

Example. "As much as the fertile mould is fitted to the tree, as much as the strong and upright trunk of the oak or elm is fitted to the twining branches of the vine or ivy, so much are the very leaves, the seeds, and the fruits of these trees fitted to the various animals; these, again, to one another, and to the elements where they live, and to which they are as appendices, in a manner, fitted and joined; as either by wings for the air, fins for the water, feet for the earth, and by other correspondent inward parts, of more curious frame and texture."*

Illus. This long and involved period presents two agents; trees lead the first member, animals the second and the third. It should, therefore, it seems, be divided into two, or perhaps three sentences, with the proper agents prefixed. In this view, the first member may remain as it is, but the second and third members will assume the following appearance. "Animals, again, are fitted to one another, and to the elements where they live, and to which they are as appendices. They are adapted by wings for the air, fins for the water, feet for the earth, and by other correspondent inward parts, of more curious frame and texture."

141. Errors are frequently committed in the extent of periods, which are sometimes swelled to too great length; at other times formed too short or abrupt.

Obs. A long period, perfectly clear and well constructed, is always beautiful and pleasant, if it be not so prolonged as to exhaust the patience and attention of the reader. But it is extremely difficult to compose such periods; and, for this reason, a great many of them are ungraceful and obscure.

142. It is, perhaps, more necessary at present, to remonstrate against a deviation to the opposite extreme. The style of many of our present writers is too short and abrupt. (Art. 135.)

Illus. An affectation of sprightliness, or of oracular wisdom, seems to have infected some of our authors, and to have tempted them to employ that laconic diction, which is very current with our neighbours, the French, and which is generally supposed most correspondent to this species of composition. The appearance of such a style, is, however, no symptom of the general corruption of the public taste and ear. But when we recollect the progress and revolutions of literature, both in Athens and Rome, we cannot be too quick-sighted in apprehending danger. The manner of the authors who succeeded the most flourishing æra of the Grecian eloquence, undoubtedly displayed the strongest attachment to this mode of style; and many of

* Shaftesbury.

the most conspicuous writers of Rome, posterior to the Augustan age, furnish examples of the same kind of composition.

143. The arrangement of the AGENT, the ACTION, and the SUBJECT, the chief ingredients in all members, sentences, and periods, is almost invariable. The agent appears first, the action succeeds, and the subject, if there be one, takes its station last.

Illus. If the agent or the subject be modified or illustrated by adjectives, or the action be extended or restricted by adverbs, the dependent words assume their stations in juxta-position to their prineipals, the adjectives to their substantives, and the adverbs to their verbs. The adjective is placed before its correspondent substantive, when it has no circumstance depending on it; but it is situated after its substantive when it is followed by some modification. “A wise "A good book." "A spacious apartment." But we say, "A man wise for himself." "A book good for amusement." "An apartment convenient for company." Adverbs generally follow neuter, but precede active verbs. "Cæsar fought bravely." "Pompey rashly engaged him at Pharsalia." Our adjectives have no inflexions, and therefore can be arranged only on the principle of juxta-position. (§ II. p. 67.)

man."

144. Though in every member of a sentence, there must be an agent, an action, and a subject, unless the action be intransitive; there are to be found in many members two, in some three, classes of agents, actions, and subjects, that explain, restrict, or otherwise depend on the primary class, by which the member is discriminated.

Example. "It is usual," says Addison,* "for a man who loves country-sports, to preserve the game on his own grounds, and divert himself on the grounds of his neighbours. My friend Sir Roger generally goes two or three miles from his own house, and gets into the frontiers of his estate before he beats about for a hare or a partridge, on purpose to spare his own fields, where he is always sure of finding diversion, when the worst comes to the worst." ·

Illus. In the former of these sentences, there is one class only of agents, actions, and subjects, "A man who loves country-sports ;" but there are no fewer than three such classes, in the first clause of the latter sentence: "Sir Roger generally goes two or three miles; he gets into the frontiers of his estate, before he beats about for a hare or a partridge." These dependent classes, like dependent words, adjectives, and adverbs, are arranged on the principle of juxta position, as near to the primary class as is consistent with the intimacy of their relation. (Illus. Art, 143.)

145. Of the arrangement of the other parts of speech, pronouns, participles, prepositions and conjunctions, no directions can be given, that will not be liable to many exceptions. The following principles seem to include every

Spectator, No. 131,

thing which can, with any confidence, be advanced on the subject.

Illus. 1. Pronouns have no other use in language, but to represent nouns; and, of course, they are commonly called to occupy the stations of the nouns they represent. They should, therefore, be marshalled agreeably to the stations in which their principals would appear. (VI. p. 68, and Art. 71.)

2. The chief office of prepositions, is, to denote the relations of substantives to one another; they are, therefore, placed generally between the related objects, immediately before the one that bears the relation, and as near as possible to the other, to which the relation is borne. "A man of virtue." "Success to industry." "Genius with judgment."

"A

3. Participles, in general, assume the situation of adjectives, of the nature of which they very much partake; but they are also employed frequently to introduce clauses dependent on preceding verbs. loving father." "A learned man.' "He passed through life, adored by his friends, and respected by all good men.' (Illus. 2. Art. 59.)

4. Conjunctions are often introduced to connect single substantives, but more commonly to conjoin clauses of sentences. From their nature they require a situation between the things of which they form an union. (Art. 72.)

5. The interjection, finally, in a grammatical sense, is totally unconnected with every other word in a sentence. Its arrangement, of course, is altogether arbitrary, and cannot admit of any theory.(Art. 73.)

6. If two adverbs attend upon a single verb, one significant of place or time, the other of some modification of the verb, the former is generally situated before the verb, the latter, more intimately connected with the verb, is placed immediately after it, to the exclusion even of the subject, when some circumstance depends upon the subject. "Cæsar often reprehended severely the ingratitude of his enemies." "He every where declared publicly his inclination to preserve the constitution of his country." (Art. 70.)

7. If one auxiliary attend a verb, along with one adverb, the adverb is generally placed between the auxiliary and the verb. "Folly has always exposed her author." "Wealth may often make friends, but can never produce true peace of mind."

8. If there be two auxiliaries, the adverb is commonly situated between them. "He should certainly have come." "He might easily have known." In passive sentences, however, the adverb is placed after both the auxiliaries; as, "He will be uncommonly agitated." "I shall be completely ruined." (Art. 70. Illus. 5.)

9. If there be three auxiliaries, when the sentence must again be passive, the adverb is placed after them all. "I might have been better informed." "He might have been completely educated in that branch of science." "It should have been well authenticated."

10. If two adverbs, with two auxiliaries, attend upon the same verb. the adverbs will be intermixed with the auxiliaries. "I have always been much embarrassed by these inconveniences."

"He can never

be sincerely disposed to promote peace." "He might at least have plainly told him."

11. In the arrangement of two or more prepositions, the relation of concomitance seems to be the most intimate, and, therefore, takes the

precedency of all others. "He went with him to France; he came with him from Rome; he lived with him at Naples, and fought with him in Flanders; he contended with him for fame, but fought with him against his enemies." The relation denoted by from, precedes that signified by to. "He came from Rome to Paris, and from Paris to London." "From a beginning very unpromising, he rose to great Society proceeds from barbarity to refinement, from ignorance to knowledge, from wealth to corruption, and from corruption to ruin."

influence and wealth."

Scholium. These principles are supported by the practice of our purest writers. It is our duty, therefore, to form our style on the most correct models before us, if we would avoid that fluctuating and unsettled imitation which is observable, when the ear is our chief guide, and its dictates are always variable, not seldom whimsical. In a matter of so much consequence, we may, it seems, follow with most confidence the example of the best writers and speakers, explained and supported by the analogies of grammar and of perspicuity. (Art. 80.) ·

CHAPTER III.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

146. THOUGH PERSPICUITY be the general head under which we are at present considering language, we shall not confine ourselves to this quality alone, in sentences, but inquire also, what is requisite for their grace and beauty.

Obs. Aristotle defines a sentence to be a form of speech which hath a beginning and an end within itself, and is of such a length as to he easily comprehended at once.* This, however, admits of a great latitude. For a sentence, or period, consists always of component parts, which are called its members; and as these members may be either few or many, and may be connected in several different ways, the same thought, or mental proposition, may often be either brought into one sentence, or split into two or three, without the material breach of any rule. (Art. 141. and 142.)

147. The first variety that occurs in the consideration of sentences, is, the distinction of long and short ones. The precise length of sentences, as to the number of words, or the number of members, which may enter into them, cannot be ascertained by any definite measure. At the same. time, it is obvious, that there may be an extreme on either

side.

Illus. Sentences, immoderately long, and consisting of too many members, always transgress some one or other of the rules which are necessary to be observed in every good sentence. In discourses that are

Δεξις έχυσα αρχην και τελευτην καθ' αυτήν, και μέγεθος ευσύνοπτον.

to be spoken, regard must be had to the easiness of pronunciation, which is not consistent with too long periods. In compositions where pronunciation has no place, still, however, by using long periods too frequently, an author overloads and fatigues the reader's attention. For long periods require, evidently, more attention than short ones, in order to perceive clearly the connection of the several parts, and to take in the whole at one view. At the same time, in too many short sentences, also, there may be an excess, by which the sense is split and broken, the connection of thought weakened, and the memory burdened, by presenting to it a long succession of minute objects. (Obs. 2. Art. 148.)

Corol. According to the nature of the composition, therefore, and the general character it ought to bear, the one or other may be predominant. But, in almost every kind of composition, the great rule is to intermix them. For the attention tires of either of them when too long continued: whereas, it is gratified by a proper mixture of long and short periods, in which a certain sprightliness is joined with majesty of style. "It is not proper always to employ a continued train, and a sort of regular compass of phrases; but style ought to be often broken down into smaller members."*

148. This variety is of so great consequence, that it must be studied, not only in the succession of long and short sentences, but in the structure of either species of these sentences.

Illus. 1. A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, whether long or short, should never be allowed to succeed one another. However musical each of them may be to a reader, it has a better effect to introduce even a discord, than to cloy the ear with the repetition of similar sounds: for, nothing is so tiresome as perpetual uniformity. (Art. 116. Illus. 1,2. Crit. I. and II.)

149. The properties most essential to a perfect sentence, seem to be the four following: 1. Clearness and precision. 2. Unity. 3. Strength. 4. Harmony. Each of these we shall illustrate separately, and at some length.

Illus. The least failure in clearness and precision, which we con. sider the first essential properties to a perfect sentence, the least degree of ambiguity, which leaves the mind in any sort of suspense as to the meaning, ought to be avoided with the greatest care; nor is it so easy a matter to keep always clear of this, as one might, at first, imagine. Precision has already been considered; we shall here consider ambiguity as it arises either from a wrong choice of words, or a wrong collocation of them. In Chapter IV. this subject will be handled in its most extensive signification.

Corol. Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences is, that the words or members most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence, as near to each other as possible; so as to make their mutual relation clearly appear. This is a rule not always observed as strictly as it ought to be, even by good writers. It will be necessary

"Non semper utendum est perpetuitate, et quasi conversione verborum ; sed pe carpenda membris minutioribus oratio est." Cicero,